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The thickness of oil spills on the sea is an important but poorly studied topic. Means to measure slick thickness are reviewed. More than 30 concepts are summarized. Many of these are judged not to be viable for a variety of scientific reasons. Two means are currently available to remotely measure oil thickness, namely, passive microwave radiometry and time of acoustic travel. Microwave radiometry is commercially developed at this time. Visual means to ascertain oil thickness are restricted by physics to thicknesses smaller than those of rainbow sheens, which rarely occur on large spills, and thin sheen. One can observe that some slicks are not sheen and are probably thicker. These three thickness regimes are not useful to oil spill countermeasures, as most of the oil is contained in the thick portion of a slick, the thickness of which is unknown and ranges over several orders of magnitude. There is a continuing need to measure the thickness of oil spills. This need continues to increase with time, and further research effort is needed. Several viable concepts have been developed but require further work and verification. One of the difficulties is that ground truthing and verification methods are generally not available for most thickness measurement methods.

The technical aspects of oil spill remote sensing are examined and the practical uses and drawbacks of each technology are given with a focus on unfolding technology. The use of visible techniques is ubiquitous, but limited to certain observational conditions and simple applications. Infrared cameras offer some potential as oil spill sensors but have several limitations. Both techniques, although limited in capability, are widely used because of their increasing economy. The laser fluorosensor uniquely detects oil on substrates that include shoreline, water, soil, plants, ice, and snow. New commercial units have come out in the last few years. Radar detects calm areas on water and thus oil on water, because oil will reduce capillary waves on a water surface given moderate winds. Radar provides a unique option for wide area surveillance, all day or night and rainy/cloudy weather. Satellite-carried radars with their frequent overpass and high spatial resolution make these day–night and all-weather sensors essential for delineating both large spills and monitoring ship and platform oil discharges. Most strategic oil spill mapping is now being carried out using radar. Slick thickness measurements have been sought for many years. The operative technique at this time is the passive microwave. New techniques for calibration and verification have made these instruments more reliable.

Provides a scientific basis for the cleanup and for the assessment of oil spills Enables Non-scientific officers to understand the science they use on a daily basis Multi-disciplinary approach covering fields as diverse as biology, microbiology, chemistry, physics, oceanography and toxicology Covers the science of oil spills from risk analysis to cleanup and through the effects on the environment Includes case studies examining and analyzing spills, such as Tasman Spirit oil spill on the Karachi Coast, and provides lessons to prevent these in the future

The visual appearance of oil spills at sea is often used as an indicator of spilled oil properties, state and slick thickness. These appearances and the oil properties that are associated with them are reviewed in this paper. The appearance of oil spills is an estimator of thickness of thin oil slicks, thinner than a rainbow sheen (<3 µm). Rainbow sheens have a strong physical explanation. Thicker oil slicks (e.g., >3 µm) are not correlated with a given oil appearance. At one time, the appearance of surface discharges from ships was thought to be correlated with discharge rate and vessel speed; however, this approach is now known to be incorrect. Oil on the sea can sometimes form water-in-oil emulsions, dependent on the properties of the oil, and these are often reddish in color. These can be detected visually, providing useful information on the state of the oil. Oil-in-water emulsions can be seen as a coffee-colored cloud below the water surface. Other information gleaned from the oil appearance includes coverage and distribution on the surface.

Major oil spills can attract the attention of the public and the media [...]

An algorithm utilizing four basic processes was described for chemical oil spill dispersion. Initial dispersion was calculated using a modified Delvigne equation adjusted to chemical dispersion, then the dispersion was distributed over the mixing depth, as predicted by the wave height. Then the droplets rise to the surface according to Stokes’ law. Oil on the surface, from the rising oil and that undispersed, is re-dispersed. The droplets in the water column are subject to coalescence as governed by the Smoluchowski equation. A loss is invoked to account for the production of small droplets that rise slowly and are not re-integrated with the main surface slick. The droplets become less dispersible as time proceeds because of increased viscosity through weathering, and by increased droplet size by coalescence. These droplets rise faster as time progresses because of the increased size. Closed form solutions were provided to allow practical limits of dispersibility given inputs of oil viscosity and wind speed. Discrete solutions were given to calculate the amount of oil in the water column at specified points of time. Regression equations were provided to estimate oil in the water column at a given time with the wind speed and oil viscosity. The models indicated that the most important factor related to the amount of dispersion, was the mixing depth of the sea as predicted from wind speed. The second most important factor was the viscosity of the starting oil. The algorithm predicted the maximum viscosity that would be dispersed given wind conditions. Simplified prediction equations were created using regression.

Reflecting the rapid progress in cleanup technology since the previous edition, this revised and expanded Third Edition of this book covers current cleanup techniques, how oil spills are measured and detected, and the properties of the oil and its long-term fate in the environment. It also deals with why, how often, and where oil spills occur as well as the chemical composition and physical properties of various oil types. The chapters describe surface and remote sensing technologies used to detect and track oil slicks, and methods to contain oil on water (booms and ancillary equipment) and recover oil from the water surface (skimmers, sorbents, and manual recovery). The author discusses the use of pumps, in-situ burning, and chemical agents, such as dispersants, for oil removal. He also addresses oil-contaminated shorelines and the effects and behavior of oil on different ecosystems and the various organisms within them. Written for the general public as well as those directly involved with oil spill cleanup, this edition provides broad, up-to-date knowledge of the cleanup and control of spills.

The National Academy of Sciences estimate that 1.7 to 8.8 million tons of oil are released into world's water every year, of which more than 70% is directly related to human activities. The effects of these spills are all too apparent: dead wildlife, oil covered marshlands and contaminated water chief among them. This reference will provide scientists, engineers and practitioners with the latest methods used for identifying and eliminating spills before they occur and develop the best available techniques, equipment and materials for dealing with oil spills in every environment. Topics covered include spill dynamics and behavior, spill treating agents, and cleanup techniques such as in-situ burning, mechanical containment or recovery, chemical and biological methods and physical methods. Also included are the fate and effects of oil spills and means to assess damage.

The evaporation of oils and petroleum is explained using the concept of regulation by diffusion through the oil layer and oil surface layer. This regulation mechanism contrasts with air‐boundary‐layer regulation, which is applicable to pure and rapidly evaporating liquids such as water. Various algorithms for oil evaporation prediction are reviewed. Models can be divided into those models that use the basis of air‐boundary‐layer regulation or those that use diffusion‐regulated evaporation. Experimental studies show that oil is not air‐boundary‐layer regulated. The fact that oil evaporation is not air‐boundary‐layer regulated, such as it is for water evaporation, implies that a simplistic evaporation equation suffices to describe the process. The following processes do not require consideration: wind velocity, turbulence level, area, and scale size. The factors important to evaporation are time and temperature. A simplified empirical‐based model system has been described and equations for more than 200 common oils and petroleum products are given. These are based on empirical studies of oil evaporation. Most oils demonstrate evaporation behavior that varies as (a + bT)ln t, where a and b are constants, T is the temperature, and t is the time. Some oils such as diesel fuel follow an evaporation that varies as (a + bT) √ t. The evaporation of diesel and similar fuels with time has a different curvature than most oils, especially over the short term. Methods are given to estimate the evaporation equations when direct empirical data are not available. Prediction using distillation data is described. These result in relatively accurate predictions. As diffusion processes are also somewhat thickness dependent, an adjustment is given for thicknesses greater than about 2 mm; however, at typical sea thicknesses, thickness is not an issue.