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BACKGROUND: Plants play a pivotal role in soil stabilization, with above‐ground vegetation and roots combining to physically protect soil against erosion. It is possible that diverse plant communities boost root biomass, with knock‐on positive effects for soil stability, but these relationships are yet to be disentangled. QUESTION: We hypothesize that soil erosion rates fall with increased plant species richness, and test explicitly how closely root biomass is associated with plant diversity. METHODS: We tested this hypothesis in salt marsh grasslands, dynamic ecosystems with a key role in flood protection. Using step‐wise regression, the influences of biotic (e.g. plant diversity) and abiotic variables on root biomass and soil stability were determined for salt marshes with two contrasting soil types: erosion‐resistant clay (Essex, southeast UK) and erosion‐prone sand (Morecambe Bay, northwest UK). A total of 132 (30‐cm depth) cores of natural marsh were extracted and exposed to lateral erosion by water in a re‐circulating flume. RESULTS: Soil erosion rates fell with increased plant species richness (R² = 0.55), when richness was modelled as a single explanatory variable, but was more important in erosion‐prone (R² = 0.44) than erosion‐resistant (R² = 0.18) regions. As plant species richness increased from two to nine species·m⁻², the coefficient of variation in soil erosion rate decreased significantly (R² = 0.92). Plant species richness was a significant predictor of root biomass (R² = 0.22). Step‐wise regression showed that five key variables accounted for 80% of variation in soil erosion rate across regions. Clay‐silt fraction and soil carbon stock were linked to lower rates, contributing 24% and 31%, respectively, to variation in erosion rate. In regional analysis, abiotic factors declined in importance, with root biomass explaining 25% of variation. Plant diversity explained 12% of variation in the erosion‐prone sandy region. CONCLUSION: Our study indicates that soil stabilization and root biomass are positively associated with plant diversity. Diversity effects are more pronounced in biogeographical contexts where soils are erosion‐prone (sandy, low organic content), suggesting that the pervasive influence of biodiversity on environmental processes also applies to the ecosystem service of erosion protection.

The ecosystem services approach is based on the interdependencies between nature and human well‐being. However, while the ecosystem services aspect of this approach is well‐developed, the human well‐being aspect remains unstructured and vaguely defined. An integrated conceptual framework was developed by adapting and linking the UK National Ecosystem Assessment‐Follow On framework with human well‐being domains. As well as benefits, the notion of disbenefits was incorporated to recognise the potentially detrimental effects from interacting with nature. Benefits and disbenefits occur at the social–ecological interface and are classified by the seven domains of human well‐being they affect. The framework is applied to saltmarsh habitat as a case study, highlighting knowledge gaps and the potential applicability and usefulness of the framework. In saltmarsh, benefits mainly accrue at larger scales with a greater impact affecting local to global individuals, while disbenefits tend to occur at a smaller scale and impact in‐situ individuals. The framework provides in‐depth insight into links, trade‐offs and dichotomies between benefits and disbenefits and human well‐being, and improves accessibility to the complex research area of human well‐being. This research can be a useful tool to guide environmental and health policy and management, as well as stakeholder engagement. A free Plain Language Summary can be found within the Supporting Information of this article. A free Plain Language Summary can be found within the Supporting Information of this article.

Background The concept of Nature-based Solutions (NBS) has evolved as an umbrella concept embracing concepts such as Green/Blue/Nature Infrastructure, Ecosystem Approach, Ecosystem Services, but at their core, they cluster into the general theme of learning from and using nature to create sustainable socio-ecological systems, which enhance human well-being (HWB). NBS address societal challenges across a broad range of spatial scales—local, regional and global—and temporal scales—medium to long-term. While there are many reviews and a clear evidence base linking certain NBS to various elements of HWB, particularly urban greenspace and human health, no comprehensive mapping exists of the links between NBS interventions and the associated multiple positive and negative HWB outcomes across a range of habitats. The initial research phase used a participatory co-design process to select four priority societal challenges facing the United Kingdom: three related to management issues i.e. NBS cost-efficacy, governance in planning, environmental justice, and the fourth threats to the acoustic environment. These challenges collectively address priority management issues which stakeholders requested be investigated widely i.e. across landscapes, cityscapes, seascapes and soundscapes. Results of the study are intended to identify and define potential future environmental evidence challenges for UK science. Methods This protocol describes the methodology for approaching the research question: What evidence is there for nature based solutions and their impacts on human wellbeing for societal challenges related to cost-efficacy, governance in planning, environmental justice, and the acoustic environment? Using systematic mapping, this study will search for and identify studies that seek to assess nature-based solutions on human well-being with regard to these four societal challenges. Systematic searches across a number of academic/online databases are tested against a number of test articles. Search results are refined using eligibility criteria through a three stage process: title, abstract, full text. Data from screened studies are extracted using a predefined coding strategy. Key trends in data will be synthesized according to a range of secondary questions and be presented in a graphical matrix illustrating the knowledge gaps and clusters for research into nature-based solutions and human well-being for each societal challenge.

A new saltmarsh soil dataset comprising of geochemical and physical property data from 752 soil samples collected through a sampling program supported by citizen scientists has been brought together with existing data to make the first national estimates of the surficial (top 10 cm) soil OC stock for Great British (GB) saltmarshes. To allow the inclusion of secondary data in the soil stock estimate a new bespoke organic matter to organic carbon conversion for GB saltmarsh soil was developed allowing organic matter data measured using loss-on-ignition to be convert to organic carbon content. The total GB surficial soil OC stock is 2.320 ± 0.470 Mt; English saltmarshes hold 1.601 ± 0.426 Mt OC, Scottish saltmarshes hold 0.368 ± 0.091 Mt OC, and Welsh saltmarshes hold 0.351 ± 0.082 Mt OC. The stocks were calculated within a Markov Chain Monte Carlo framework allowing robust uncertainty estimates to be derived for the first time. Spatial mapping tools are available to accompany these stock estimates at individual saltmarsh habitats throughout GB. This data will aid in the protection and management of saltmarshes and represents the first steps towards the inclusion of saltmarsh OC in the national inventory accounting of blue carbon ecosystems.

Coastal systems provide many cultural ecosystem services (CES) to humans. Fewer studies have focused solely on CES, while those comparing CES across countries are even rarer. In the case of shellfish, considerable ecosystem services focus has been placed on nutrient remediation, with relatively little on the cultural services provided, despite strong historical, cultural, social and economic links between shellfish and coastal communities. The ecosystem services provided by the common cockle, Cerastoderma edule, have recently been described, yet the cultural benefits from cockles remain mostly unknown. Here, we documented the CES provided by C. edule in five maritime countries along the Atlantic coast of western Europe, classifying evidenced examples of services into an a priori framework. The high‐level classes, adapted from the Millennium Assessment and the Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services, were: inspirational, sense of place, spiritual & religious, aesthetic, recreation & ecotourism, cultural heritage and educational. A further 19 sub‐classes were defined. We followed a narrative approach to draw out commonalities and differences among countries using a semi‐quantitative analysis. Examples of CES provided by cockles were found for all classes in most countries. Cockles supply important and diverse cultural benefits to humans across Atlantic Europe, making it an ideal model species to study CES in coastal areas. Most examples were in cultural heritage, highlighting the importance of this class in comparison with classes which typically receive more attention in the literature like recreation or aesthetics. We also found that the cultural associations with cockles differed among countries, including between neighbouring countries that share a strong maritime heritage. The extent to which cultural associations were linked with the present or past also differed among countries, with stronger association with the present in southern countries and with the past in the north. Understanding the wider benefits of cockles could deepen the recognition of this important coastal resource, and contribute to promoting sustainable management practices, through greater engagement with local communities. This study is an important step towards better integration of CES in coastal environments and could be used as a framework to study the CES of other species or ecosystems. A free Plain Language Summary can be found within the Supporting Information of this article. Résumé Les écosystèmes côtiers rendent de nombreux Services Ecosystémiques Culturels (SEC) aux hommes. Peu d’études se sont focalisées sur ces SEC, et encore moins sur les comparaisons des SEC entre pays. Dans le cas des coquillages, l'attention s'est surtout concentrée sur le service rendu concernant la remédiation des nutriments, alors que relativement peu d'études ont concerné les SEC malgré les forts liens historiques, culturels, sociaux et économiques entre les coquillages et les communautés humaines littorales. Les services écosystémiques assurés par la coque commune Cerastoderma edule ont récemment été décrits, les bénéfices de nature culturelle restant pour autant largement méconnus. Ici, nous avons inventorié les SEC rendus par C. edule dans cinq pays occidentaux européens ayant une façade maritime sur l’Atlantique, en classant les exemples avérés de services dans un cadre préalable. Les classes de niveau supérieur étaient inspirées de l’évaluation du Millenium Assessment et de la Classification Internationale des Services Ecosystémiques: inspiration, esprit des lieux, spiritualité et esthétique, loisir et écotourisme, héritage culturel, et éducation. Dix‐neuf autres sous‐classes ont été définies. Nous avons suivi une approche narrative pour mettre en évidence par une analyse semi‐quantitative les points communs et les différences entre pays. Des exemples des SEC rendus par les coques ont été trouvés dans toutes les classes et pour la plupart des pays. Les coques fournissent aux hommes des bénéfices culturels importants et variés à travers les pays européens de la façade atlantique, en faisant un modèle idéal pour l’étude des SEC dans les régions côtières. La plupart des exemples concernait les héritages culturels, mettant en exergue l'importance de cette classe en comparaison d'autres classes ayant reçu plus d'attention comme les loisirs ou l'esthétique. Nous avons également trouvé que les associations culturelles différaient d'un pays à l'autre, même entre pays voisins partageant un fort héritage maritime. L'intensité des liens entre les associations culturelles, le présent ou le passé était également différente entre les pays, avec une association plus forte avec le présent dans les pays du sud, et plus forte avec le passé dans les pays du nord. Comprendre les larges bénéfices rendus par les coques pourrait approfondir la reconnaissance de cette importante ressource littorale, et contribuer à promouvoir les pratiques de développement durable à travers un plus grand engagement des communautés humaines côtières. Cette étude est une étape importante vers une meilleure intégration des SEC dans les environnements côtiers et pourrait être utilisée comme un cadre pour l’étude des SEC rendus par d'autres espèces dans d'autres environnements. Resumen Los sistemas costeros proporcionan numerosos Servicios de Ecosistema Culturales (SEC) al ser humano. Son pocos los estudios que se han concentrado exclusivamente en los SEC y entre estos son aún más escasos los que han establecido comparaciones entre países. En el caso de los servicios del ecosistema derivados de los bivalvos, se ha prestado una atención considerable a la biorremediación de nutrientes y relativamente poca atención a los servicios de ecosistema culturales. Esto a pesar de los fuertes lazos históricos, culturales, sociales y económicos que existen entre los bivalvos y las comunidades costeras. Los servicios de ecosistema proporcionados por el berberecho común, Cerastoderma edule, han sido descritos recientemente, aunque los beneficios culturales de esta especie permanecen en gran medida desconocidos. Este trabajo documenta los SEC proporcionados por C. edule en cinco países a lo largo de la costa Atlántica del oeste de Europa, clasificando y proporcionando ejemplos que evidencian esos servicios en un marco apriorístico. El primer nivel de clasificación, adaptado de la Evaluación de Ecosistemas del Milenio y de la Clasificación Internacional de Servicios del Ecosistema comprende: inspiración; sentido de pertenencia; espirituales y religiosos; estéticos; ocio y eco‐turismo; patrimonio cultural y educativo. Se definieron 19 sub‐clases. Hemos utilizado un enfoque narrativo para señalar a continuación aspectos comunes y diferencias entre países mediante un análisis semi‐cuantitativo. Se proporcionaron ejemplos de los SEC que ofrecen los berberechos en todas las categorías de la clasificación en la mayoría de los países. Los berberechos proporcionan importantes y diversos servicios de ecosistema culturales al ser humano a lo largo del Atlántico en Europa, presentándose como un modelo ideal para estudiar los SEC en las áreas costeras. Muchos de los ejemplos se asocian al patrimonio cultural, destacando la importancia de esta categoría frente a otras que han podido concentrar más atención de la literatura anterior como es el caso del ocio o los estéticos. También hemos detectado que los servicios culturales asociados a los berberechos difieren entre países, incluso entre países vecinos que comparten un importante patrimonio marítimo. La medida en la que esas asociaciones con la cultura forman parte del presente o del pasado es también diferente entre países, mostrándose mucha más relación con el presente en los países del sur mientras se asocia al pasado en los países del norte. Entender de manera más amplia los beneficios que los berberechos proporcionan puede reforzar el reconocimiento de este importante recurso costero y contribuir a la promoción de prácticas de gestión más sostenibles, a través de una mayor implicación de las comunidades locales. Este estudio representa un paso importante para una mejor integración de los SEC en los estudios ambientales costeros y podría ser utilizado como marco de referencia para el estudio de los SEC de otras especies o ecosistemas. Resumo Os sistemas costeiros fornecem muitos Serviços de Ecossistemas Culturais (SEC) para o ser humano. Poucos estudos focaram exclusivamente os SEC comparativamente a outros serviços dos ecossistemas e aqueles que comparam SEC entre países são ainda mais raros. No caso dos moluscos, muitos serviços dos ecossistemas abordaram a bioremediação de nutrientes, com relativamente pouca atenção nos serviços culturais fornecidos, apesar dos fortes vínculos históricos, culturais, sociais e económicos que existem entre as comunidades costeiras e os moluscos. Os serviços dos ecossistemas fornecidos pelo berbigão‐comum, Cerastoderma edule, foram descritos recentemente, mas os benefícios culturais do berbigão ainda são desconhecidos. Este trabalho documenta os SEC fornecido por C. edule em cinco países localizados ao longo da Costa Atlântica da Europa Ocidental, através da classificação de exemplos que evidenciam esses serviços com base numa estrutura previamente definida. O primeiro nível de classificação, adaptado do Millennium Ecosystem Assessment e da Classificação Internacional Comum de Serviços dos Ecossistemas incluiu: inspiração, sentido de lugar, espiritual e religioso, estético, recreação e ecoturismo, valores patrimoniais e culturais e educacionais. Foram definidas 19 subclasses. Seguimos uma abordagem narrativa para extrair semelhanças e diferenças entre os países usando uma análise semi‐quantitativa. Foram fornecidos exemplos de SEC fornecidos pelo berbigão para todas as classes na maioria dos países. O berbigão fornece benefícios culturais importantes e diversos para o ser humano em toda a Europa Atlântica, torna

The Glastir Monitoring and Evaluation Programme (GMEP) ran from 2013 until 2016 and was probably the most comprehensive programme of ecological study ever undertaken at a national scale in Wales. The programme aimed to (1) set up an evaluation of the environmental effects of the Glastir agri-environment scheme and (2) quantify environmental status and trends across the wider countryside of Wales. The focus was on outcomes for climate change mitigation, biodiversity, soil and water quality, woodland expansion, and cultural landscapes. As such, GMEP included a large field-survey component, collecting data on a range of elements including vegetation, land cover and use, soils, freshwaters, birds, and insect pollinators from up to three-hundred 1 km survey squares throughout Wales. The field survey capitalised upon the UK Centre for Ecology & Hydrology (UKCEH) Countryside Survey of Great Britain, which has provided an extensive set of repeated, standardised ecological measurements since 1978. The design of both GMEP and the UKCEH Countryside Survey involved stratified-random sampling of squares from a 1 km grid, ensuring proportional representation from land classes with distinct climate, geology and physical geography. Data were collected from different land cover types and landscape features by trained professional surveyors, following standardised and published protocols. Thus, GMEP was designed so that surveys could be repeated at regular intervals to monitor the Welsh environment, including the impacts of agri-environment interventions. One such repeat survey is scheduled for 2021 under the Environment and Rural Affairs Monitoring & Modelling Programme (ERAMMP). Data from GMEP have been used to address many applied policy questions, but there is major potential for further analyses. The precise locations of data collection are not publicly available, largely for reasons of landowner confidentiality. However, the wide variety of available datasets can be (1) analysed at coarse spatial resolutions and (2) linked to each other based on square-level and plot-level identifiers, allowing exploration of relationships, trade-offs and synergies. This paper describes the key sets of raw data arising from the field survey at co-located sites (2013 to 2016). Data from each of these survey elements are available with the following digital object identifiers (DOIs): Landscape features (Maskell et al., 2020a–c), https://doi.org/10.5285/82c63533-529e-47b9-8e78-51b27028cc7f, https://doi.org/10.5285/9f8d9cc6-b552-4c8b-af09-e92743cdd3de, https://doi.org/10.5285/f481c6bf-5774-4df8-8776-c4d7bf059d40; Vegetation plots (Smart et al., 2020), https://doi.org/10.5285/71d3619c-4439-4c9e-84dc-3ca873d7f5cc; Topsoil physico-chemical properties (Robinson et al., 2019), https://doi.org/10.5285/0fa51dc6-1537-4ad6-9d06-e476c137ed09; Topsoil meso-fauna (Keith et al., 2019), https://doi.org/10.5285/1c5cf317-2f03-4fef-b060-9eccbb4d9c21; Topsoil particle size distribution (Lebron et al., 2020), https://doi.org/10.5285/d6c3cc3c-a7b7-48b2-9e61-d07454639656; Headwater stream quality metrics (Scarlett et al., 2020a), https://doi.org/10.5285/e305fa80-3d38-4576-beef-f6546fad5d45; Pond quality metrics (Scarlett et al., 2020b), https://doi.org/10.5285/687b38d3-2278-41a0-9317-2c7595d6b882; Insect pollinator and flower data (Botham et al., 2020), https://doi.org/10.5285/3c8f4e46-bf6c-4ea1-9340-571fede26ee8; and Bird counts (Siriwardena et al., 2020), https://doi.org/10.5285/31da0a94-62be-47b3-b76e-4bdef3037360.

Greenhouse gas stabilisation in the atmosphere is one of the most pressing challenges of this century. Sequestering carbon in the soil by changing land use and management is increasingly proposed as part of climate mitigation strategies, but our understanding of this is limited in quantitative terms. Here we collate a substantial national and regional data set (15 790 soil cores) and analyse it in an advanced statistical modelling framework. This produced new estimates of the effects of land use on soil carbon stock (Sc) in the UK, different in magnitude and ranking order from the previous best estimates. Soil carbon stocks were highest in woodlands, followed by rough grazing, semi-natural grasslands, and improved grasslands, and they were lowest in croplands. Estimates were smaller than the previous estimates, partly because of new data, but mainly because the effect is more reliably characterised using a logarithmic transformation of the data. With the very large data set analysed here, the uncertainty in the differences among land uses was small enough to identify consistent mean effects. However, the variability in these effects was large, and this variability was similar across all surveys. This has important implications for agri-environment schemes seeking to sequester carbon in the soil by altering land use, because the effect of a given intervention is very hard to verify. We examined the validity of the “space-for-time” substitution, and, although the results were not unequivocal, we estimated that the effects are likely to be overestimated by 5 %–33 %, depending upon land use.

Carbon stored in coastal wetland ecosystems is of global relevance to climate regulation. Broadscale inventories of this “blue” carbon store are currently lacking and labour intensive. Sampling 23 salt marshes in the United Kingdom, we developed a Saltmarsh Carbon Stock Predictor (SCSP) with the capacity to predict up to 44 % of spatial variation in surface soil organic carbon (SOC) stock (0–10 cm) from simple observations of plant community and soil type. Classification of soils into two types (sandy or not-sandy) explained 32 % of variation in SOC stock. Plant community type (five vegetation classes) explained 37 % of variation. Combined information on soil and plant community types explained 44 % of variation in SOC stock. GIS maps of surface SOC stock were produced for all salt marshes in Wales (∼4000 ha), using existing soil maps and governmental vegetation data and demonstrating the application of the SCSP for large-scale predictions of blue carbon stores and the use of plant community traits for predicting ecosystem services.

Question: Does the vegetation of restored salt marshes increasingly resemble natural reference communities over time? Location: The Essex estuaries, southeast England. Methods: Abandoned reclamations, where coastal defences had been breached in storm events, and current salt marsh recreation schemes were surveyed giving a chronosequence of salt marsh regeneration from 2 to 107 years. The presence, abundance and height of plant species were recorded and comparisons were made with adjacent reference salt marsh communities at equivalent elevations. Results: Of the 18 paired sites surveyed, 13 regenerated marshes had fewer species than their adjacent reference marsh, three had an equal number and two had more. The plant communities of only two de-embankment sites matched that of the reference community. 0–50 year old sites and 51–100 year old sites had fewer species per quadrat than the 101+ year sites and the reference salt marshes. There was a weak relationship between differences in species richness for regenerated and reference marshes and the time since sites were first re-exposed to tidal inundation. Cover values for the invasive and recently evolved Spartina anglica were greater within regenerated than reference marshes. Conclusions: Salt marsh plants will colonise formerly reclaimed land relatively quickly on resumption of tidal flooding. However, even after 100 years regenerated salt marshes differ in species richness, composition and structure from reference communities. Nomenclature: Rodwell (2000) for plant communities, Stace (1997) for vascular plants and Hardy & Guiry (2003) for algae.