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Recognizing variation in human–nature relationships across different contexts, entities of nature and individual people is central to an equitable management of nature and its contributions to people, and to design effective strategies for encouraging and guiding more sustainable human behaviour. We complement the broader Intergovernmental Science‐Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) conceptual framework by zooming in from relationships between people and nature to individual relationships with entities of nature (IREN), and introduce a new typology that categorizes those relationships based on individual attitude, behavioural preference and behaviour towards an entity. These three dimensions illustrate if an individual perceives the entity to provide mainly positive, negative or no contributions; prefers to have a mainly positive, negative or no impact on the entity; and performs mainly actions with positive, negative or no impacts on the entity. The IREN typology defines 17 overarching relationship types, including not only types where attitude, behavioural preference and behaviour are all negative (intolerance), all neutral (indifference) or all positive (stewardship), but also types where the valence of some dimensions diverges. Among those, we integrate and redefine established types like tolerance, and introduce new ones like ambivalent opposition, which is highly relevant for the management of overabundant or invasive species. Combining attitude, behavioural preference and behaviour to categorize different IREN types can help detect inequalities in the benefits and detriments individual people receive from different entities, and signal societal conflict potential or misalignment of behaviour with conservation goals. Combining those three dimensions also indicates the relative importance of goal‐oriented motives like the desire to optimize an entity's perceived contributions, moral motives like the desire to act righteously and implementation barriers preventing individuals from acting according to their preference. By adding an individual‐ and entity‐specific perspective, the IREN framework and typology can encourage more equitable approaches to managing the benefits and detriments people derive from nature, and assist the development of more effective strategies for aligning human behaviour with conservation and sustainability goals. Zusammenfassung Die Natur kann sowohl positive als auch negative Beiträge zur Lebensqualität eines Menschen leisten. Für gesellschaftliche Gerechtigkeit im Management dieser Naturbeiträge, aber auch für die Entwicklung wirkungsvoller Strategien zur Förderung nachhaltigen Verhaltens muss berücksichtigt werden, dass Mensch‐Natur‐Beziehungen unterschiedlich geartet können ‐ je nachdem, welchen Kontext, Menschen, oder Teil der Natur wir betrachten. Wir führen eine Erweiterung des konzeptionellen Frameworks der Intergovernmental Science‐Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) zu Mensch‐Natur‐Beziehungen ein, welche den breiteren Blick auf \"Menschen\" und \"Natur\" um eine auf das Individuum bzw. auf einzelne Naturentitäten fokussierte Perspektive ergänzt. Darauf aufbauend entwickeln wir eine Typologie Individueller Beziehungen mit Naturentitäten, die anhand der Einstellung, Verhaltenspräferenz und des Verhaltens eines Individuums verschiedene Beziehungstypen definiert. Diese drei Dimensionen spiegeln wider, ob eine Person die Auswirkungen einer Naturentität auf ihre Lebensqualität als eher positiv, negativ oder neutral empfindet; ob sie mit ihrem Verhalten einen vorwiegend positiven, negativen oder keinen Effekt auf die Entität bewirken möchte; und ob ihr tatsächliches Verhalten hauptsächlich positive, negative, oder keine Auswirkungen auf die Entität hat. In der Typologie Individueller Beziehungen mit Naturentitäten sind 17 übergeordnete Beziehungstypen definiert. Darunter sind neben Typen, bei denen Einstellung, Verhaltenspräferenz und Verhalten durchweg negativ (Intoleranz), neutral (Teilnahmslosigkeit) oder positiv (Stewardship) sind, auch solche, bei denen einige Dimensionen unterschiedliche Wertigkeiten aufweisen. Zu letzteren gehören neben bekannten Beziehungstypen wie Toleranz auch neue wie z.B. Ambivalente Opposition, die äußert relevant für das Management invasiver oder zu häufig vorkommender Arten ist. Einstellung, Verhaltenspräferenz und Verhalten gemeinsam zu betrachten, kann Ungleichheiten in der Verteilung von Vor‐ und Nachteilen aufdecken, die unterschiedliche Naturentitäten für verschiedene Menschen mit sich bringen. Außerdem kann dieser Ansatz als Indikator für etwaiges gesellschaftliches Konfliktpotenzial dienen und aufzeigen, ob vorherrschende Verhaltensweisen mit Naturschutz‐ und Nachhaltigkeitszielen in Einklang stehen oder nicht. Darüber hinaus kann so abgeschätzt werden, wie stark Individuelle Beziehungen mit Naturentitäten jeweils durch die folgenden Faktoren geprägt sind: a) ergebnisorientierte Beweggründe wie das Bestreben, die Auswirkungen der Naturentität auf die eigene Lebensqualität zu optimieren, b) moralische Beweggründe wie das Streben nach Rechtschaffenheit, c) Hindernisse, die das Individuum davon abhalten, entsprechend der eigenen Verhaltenspräferenz zu handeln. Durch seinen Fokus auf das Individuum und auf einzelne Naturentitäten kann der vorgestellte Ansatz zu mehr Gerechtigkeit beim Management der Vor‐ und Nachteile beitragen, die für verschiedene Menschen mit unterschiedlichen Naturentitäten einhergehen. Ferner kann er helfen, Strategien zur Förderung nachhaltigen und naturschutzfreundlichen Verhaltens effektiver zu gestalten. A free Plain Language Summary can be found within the Supporting Information of this article. A free Plain Language Summary can be found within the Supporting Information of this article.

INTRODUCTION Consumer demand is an integral part of any market system, and the markets involving wildlife products are no exception ('t Sas‐Rolfes et al., 2019). Macro factors are those that operate at a larger scale while micro factors relate to an individual consumer To deal with such complexity in the understanding of consumer demand from a marketing perspective, the concept of latent demand was created. By acknowledging the existence of latent demand, we recognize that not only changes in wealth, but also in cultural and social context, as well as information, can change the set of constraints facing a set of consumers, thereby increasing or reducing demand for a given product. Notwithstanding measurement challenges, the classical economic approach to demand (Marshall, 2009) is useful for determining the potential impacts of short‐term supply‐side policy interventions, by analysing the relationship between changing quantities of supply and market prices, the latter of which typically provide one of the most critical incentives for illegal activity (Draca & Machin, 2015).

[...]the pandemic illustrates how crises create opportunities to undercut programs to protect people and nature. [...]observing the willingness of people to make deep sacrifices for society to stem the pandemic shows the power of collective action to make governance succeed. Endnotes: 1https://www.duluthnewstribune.com/sports/outdoors/6478252-Minnesota-fishing-license-sales-explode-during-COVID-19-pandemic 2https://www.cbsnews.com/news/coronavirus-memorial-day-weekend-beach/ 3https://www.nwpb.org/2020/04/04/washington-public-lands-are-still-closed-so-please-stop-going-around-closure-signs-officials-ask/ https://www.nrpa.org/globalassets/engagement-survey-report-2018.pdf 4https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-01-29/logging-bushfire-affected-areas-australia-increases-fire-risk/11903662; https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-01-29/logging-industry-and-nationals-call-for-burnt-timber-salvage/11903574 5https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/26/climate/epa-coronavirus-pollution-rules.html 6https://www.cbsnews.com/news/trump-rule-could-kill-billions-birds-former-wildlife-chief-don-ashe-migratory-bird-treaty-act/ 7https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/06/world/americas/amazon-deforestation-brazil.html

The Vietnamese Government committed to closing all bear farms in the country by 2022. Some researchers have expressed concerns that ending the commercial farming of bears, while demand for bear bile persists, could lead to increased hunting pressure on wild bear populations. In this article, we used mixed methods of questionnaires, Discrete Choice Experiments (DCEs), and interviews to investigate current consumer demand for bear bile in Vietnam, with a specific aim of understanding the potential for consumers to seek out wild bear bile. We sampled at seven areas across the country of Vietnam (total respondents = 2,463). We found low use of farmed and wild bear bile. Despite widespread belief in farmed and wild bear bile’s efficacy, we found that individuals were apathetic about continuing to use bear bile. Coupled with a strong preference for using synthetic bear bile over wild and farmed bear bile found in the DCEs, we posit that bear bile consumers in Vietnam will be willing to use non animal-based products, including bear bile plant and Western medicine, to treat future ailments.

As a solutions‐oriented discipline, our attention is often placed on the substance of conservation challenges. Ideally, conservation science is relevant for policy and practice, contributing relevant data to fill key knowledge gaps. Thus, the data value is not only determined by methodological rigor, but also by its usefulness. In this perspective, we contend that trust in the purpose and process of data collection is integral to evidence‐based conservation and threatened by parachute science. We describe the substance, process, and relationships involved in the establishment of a community‐based reporting network for evaluating conflict responses and interventions to wildlife damage. We demonstrate how reflection on the process of science can provide the foundation for meaningful collaboration. We illustrate how, as a multinational team, supporting local researchers to establish a community‐based program, trust and demonstration of a long‐term commitment are essential to avoid the pitfalls of parachute science. We describe the substance, process, and relationships involved in the establishment of a community‐based reporting network for evaluating conflict responses and interventions to wildlife damage. We illustrate how, as a multinational team supporting local researchers to establish a community‐based program, trust and demonstration of a long‐term commitment are essential to avoid the pitfalls of parachute science.

The exponential rise of information available means we can now, in theory, access knowledge on almost any question we ask. However, as the amount of unverified information increases, so too does the challenge in deciding which information to trust. Farmers, when learning about agricultural innovations, have historically relied on in-person advice from traditional ‘experts’, such as agricultural advisers, to inform farm management. As more farmers go online for information, it is not clear whether they are now using digital information to corroborate in-person advice from traditional ‘experts’, or if they are foregoing ‘expert’ advice in preference for peer-generated information. To fill this knowledge gap, we sought to understand how farmers in two contrasting European countries (Hungary and the UK) learnt about sustainable soil innovations and who influenced them to innovate. Through interviews with 82 respondents, we found farmers in both countries regularly used online sources to access soil information; some were prompted to change their soil management by farmer social media ‘influencers’. However, online information and interactions were not usually the main factor influencing farmers to change their practices. Farmers placed most trust in other farmers to learn about new soil practices and were less trusting of traditional ‘experts’, particularly agricultural researchers from academic and government institutions, who they believed were not empathetic towards farmers’ needs. We suggest that some farmers may indeed have had enough of traditional ‘experts’, instead relying more on their own peer networks to learn and innovate. We discuss ways to improve trustworthy knowledge exchange between agricultural stakeholders to increase uptake of sustainable soil management practices, while acknowledging the value of peer influence and online interactions for innovation and trust building.

The Critically Endangered saiga antelope Saiga tatarica faces an uncertain future, with populations dwindling from epidemics in its range countries, and ongoing demand for its horns in the traditional Chinese medicine trade. Singapore is a major hub for the global trade in saiga horn and an important consumer country, with saiga horn products widely available in the domestic market. Despite this, little is known about the consumers that drive domestic demand. Before interventions are carried out, it is important to understand who the consumers are, and their motivations. We conducted an investigation into consumption prevalence and consumer demographics, knowledge and motivations. We surveyed 230 Chinese Singaporeans, through a combination of face-to-face interviews and self-administered questionnaires. Recent consumption incidence (in the previous 12 months) was relatively high, at 13%. Younger respondents (18–35 years) had the highest prevalence of recent consumption (25%), often as a result of influence from an older family member or friend. Bottled saiga horn cooling water was the most popular product among recent users (50%), followed by horn shavings (31%) and tablets (13%). Awareness of conservation issues and regulations was uniformly low. Awareness raising may have an effect in reducing consumer demand in Singapore. However, given the exploratory nature of this study, it is best used to guide and inform future research underlying behavioural change interventions in a relatively understudied but important consumer group, Chinese Singaporeans.

The West African giraffe is restricted to Niger, but historically it inhabited much of the Sudano-Sahelian zone. The population is concentrated in the ‘Giraffe Zone’ (GZ), an unprotected area with a high human population density. Since the mid-1990s, the giraffe population has steadily increased mainly due to the collective social and conservation initiatives of the government, non-governmental organizations and the local community. In 2018, the first West African giraffe satellite population was established through the reintroduction of eight individuals into Gadabedji Biosphere Reserve (GBR). In this study, we aimed to describe the current state of human–giraffe coexistence, human attitudes towards giraffe and human habits of natural resources use through a questionnaire survey conducted in the GZ and GBR. Although most of the GZ respondents highlighted crop damage caused by giraffe, we also found overall positive attitudes towards the animals. Most respondents from both sites expressed positive attitudes towards giraffe, highlighting that they do not see poaching as a major current threat. However, the giraffe population continues to be directly threatened by habitat loss through firewood cutting, livestock overgrazing and agriculture expansion. Long-term conservation of the West African giraffe is dependent on better habitat protection and understanding of current human–giraffe coexistence through ensuring that giraffe presence will benefit local communities across their range.

Human‐carnivore coexistence is a multi‐faceted issue that requires an understanding of the diverse attitudes and perspectives of the communities living with large carnivores. To inform initiatives that encourage behaviors in line with conservation goals, we focused on assessing the two components of attitudes (i.e., feelings and beliefs), as well as norms of local communities coexisting with Apennine brown bears (Ursus arctos marsicanus) for a long time. This bear population is under serious extinction risks due to its persistently small population size, which is currently confined to the long‐established protected area of Abruzzo, Lazio and Molise National Park (PNALM) and its surrounding region in central Italy. We interviewed 1,611 residents in the PNALM to determine attitudes and values toward bears. We found that support for the bear's legal protection was widespread throughout the area, though beliefs about the benefits of conserving bears varied across geographic administrative districts. Our results showed that residents across our study areas liked bears. At the same time, areas that received more benefits from tourism were more strongly associated with positive feelings toward bears. Such findings provide useful information to improve communication efforts of conservation authorities with local communities.

Human–wildlife conflict (HWC) presents a growing challenge to conservation and development worldwide. World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and experts on human–wildlife coexistence strategies have responded to this challenge by developing a holistic, globally applicable approach to HWC management that can be tailored to specific local, regional, or national contexts. Its framework addresses the complexity of essential HWC management and long‐term coexistence strategies and is implemented in a structured yet contextualized step‐by‐step sequence by a team of facilitators and multiple stakeholders. The C2C: Conflict to Coexistence Approach centers on four principles (tolerance is maintained, responsibility is shared, resilience is built, holism is fundamental), four outcomes (wildlife thrives alongside human presence, habitat sufficient to maintain viable wildlife populations, people able and willing to live alongside wildlife, livelihoods/assets secured against presence of wildlife), and six HWC management elements (policy and governance, understanding interactions, prevention, response, mitigation, monitoring) that are to be implemented in an integrated way. It is currently undergoing testing in diverse pilot sites across three continents and demonstrating positive initial results. Here, we share the framework and methodology of the approach and initial results and experiences from these pilot sites. We introduce the C2C:Conflict to Coexistence Approach, with its holistic and integrated framework and globally applicable methodology for the management of human–wildlife conflict (HWC) that can be tailored to specific local, regional, or national contexts. Its framework addresses the complexity of essential HWC management and long‐term coexistence strategies and is implemented in a structured yet contextualized step‐by‐step sequence by a team of process facilitators involving multiple stakeholders. The video summary is uploaded to our website on human‐wildlife conflict, which can be found here: Human Wildlife Conflict