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Microglia are dynamic cells, constantly surveying their surroundings and interacting with neurons and synapses. Indeed, a wealth of knowledge has revealed a critical role of microglia in modulating synaptic transmission and plasticity in the developing brain. In the past decade, novel pharmacological and genetic strategies have allowed the acute removal of microglia, opening the possibility to explore and understand the role of microglia also in the adult brain. In this review, we summarized and discussed the contribution of microglia depletion strategies to the current understanding of the role of microglia on synaptic function, learning and memory, and behaviour both in physiological and pathological conditions. We first described the available microglia depletion methods highlighting their main strengths and weaknesses. We then reviewed the impact of microglia depletion on structural and functional synaptic plasticity. Next, we focused our analysis on the effects of microglia depletion on behaviour, including general locomotor activity, sensory perception, motor function, sociability, learning and memory both in healthy animals and animal models of disease. Finally, we integrated the findings from the reviewed studies and discussed the emerging roles of microglia on the maintenance of synaptic function, learning, memory strength and forgetfulness, and the implications of microglia depletion in models of brain disease.

β-sitosterol is waxy substance, white in color distributed in a variety of natural plant sources cereals, pulses, legumes, vegetables, fruits, and herbs. Several clinical and preclinical investigations indicate that β-sitosterol has a wide range of important health advantages. It prevents many types of malignancies, lowers levels of low density lipoprotein (LDL), lowers the risk of coronary artery disease, heart attacks, and atherosclerosis, and supports the body's natural healing process. It is found to have cancer-protective properties and has the potency to be beneficial against breast, prostate, colon, lung, stomach, and leukemia. The present review provides a complete analysis and examines the literature on β-sitosterol from different dietary sources, with a focus on its toxicological characteristics and nutraceutical qualities. It lays down the theoretical basis and justification for directing the future planning and execution of clinical studies intended to confirm the importance and possible toxicity of β-sitosterol.

Background and objective Arterial blood puncture (ABP) is a common, painful procedure frequently associated with anxiety. It is well-known that traditional methods of pain management do not provide relief in all cases, making it imperative to explore alternative methods like virtual reality (VR)-aided distraction. This study was designed to evaluate the influence of VR on pain and anxiety levels during ABP procedures. Methods A total of 79 adults were recruited to undergo ABP and were assessed using the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) for anxiety and the Numerical Pain Rating Scale (NPRS) for pain. The VR intervention was performed before the second ABP. The data were analyzed with the help of SPSS Statistics, version 23 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY), using paired sample t-tests. Results It was found that the VR intervention significantly decreased levels of pain (p<0.0005), with the average pain intensity improving from 4.21 ± 2.14 before intervention at baseline to 3.23 ± 1.88 after intervention. In contrast, there was no significant difference in anxiety levels before VR intervention versus after (p = 0.858). Conclusions VR-aided distraction has emerged as a non-pharmacological method to reduce pain during ABP procedures. Further studies are required to determine its effect on anxiety and to evaluate its use in the broader clinical environment.

It is widely acknowledged that microglia actively regulate synaptic function in the brain. Remarkably, much of our understanding regarding the role of microglia in synaptic regulation is derived from studies in acute brain slices. However, it is still uncertain to what extent the preparation and maintenance of acute slices can influence microglial function and whether microglial changes may affect synaptic transmission. In this study, we examined the impact of acute slice resting time on hippocampal CA1 microglia, by assessing morphological and functional parameters at two distinct time intervals. We report that after 4 h from slicing microglia undergo morphological, functional, and transcriptional changes, including a decrease in the number of branches and in their movement speed. Furthermore, microglia acquire a reactive phenotype, characterized by increased amplitude of outward rectifying K + currents, increased expression of the pro-inflammatory cytokine Tnfα and altered expression of the microglial receptors Cx3cr1 and P2y12r. We also examined time-dependent changes of excitatory synaptic transmission in CA1 pyramidal neurons from acute hippocampal slices, reporting time-dependent decrease in both amplitude and frequency of postsynaptic currents (sEPSCs), along with a decrease in spine density. Noticeably, sEPSCs amplitude decrease was absent in slices prepared from PLX5622 microglia-depleted mice, suggesting that this time-dependent effect on synaptic transmission is microglia-dependent. Our findings highlight possible causal relation between microglia phenotypic changes in the hours following slice preparation and concomitant synaptic changes, pointing to the mechanisms of acute synaptic modulation, whose understanding is crucial for unraveling microglia-neurons interplay in nature. Furthermore, they emphasize the potential issues associated with experimental time windows in ex vivo samples.

The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic has challenged the research community globally to innovate, interact, and integrate findings across hierarchies. Research on SARS-CoV-2 has produced an abundance of data spanning multiple parallels, including clinical data, SARS-CoV-2 genome architecture, host response captured through transcriptome and genetic variants, microbial co-infections (metagenome), and comorbidities. Disease phenotypes in the case of COVID-19 present an intriguing complexity that includes a broad range of symptomatic to asymptomatic individuals, further compounded by a vast heterogeneity within the spectrum of clinical symptoms displayed by the symptomatic individuals. The clinical outcome is further modulated by the presence of comorbid conditions at the point of infection. The COVID-19 pandemic has produced an expansive wealth of literature touching many aspects of SARS-CoV-2 ranging from causal to outcome, predisposition to protective (possible), co-infection to comorbidity, and differential mortality globally. As challenges provide opportunities, the current pandemic’s challenge has underscored the need and opportunity to work for an integrative approach that may be able to thread together the multiple variables. Through this review, we have made an effort towards bringing together information spanning across different domains to facilitate researchers globally in pursuit of their response to SARS-CoV-2.

Background Respiratory diseases pose a significant challenge to global health, with smoking being a key risk factor. Chronic respiratory conditions like chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and asthma are particularly affected by smoking, which accelerates the decline in lung function. Objectives The study aims to compare the respiratory function outcomes between smokers and non-smokers with respiratory disorders and to determine the impact of age, gender and BMI on the lung function. Methods Pulmonary function test (PFT) data of 438 patients from King Abdulaziz University Hospital (KAUH) was retrospectively studied. Spirometry measurements were FVC Actual, FEV1 Actual, and FEV1/FVC ratio. The descriptive statistics and multivariate analysis (MANOVA) were applied to analyse data using SPSS version 27. Results Of all the participants, only 7.3% were smokers, while remaining 92.7% were non-smokers. Although, the FEV1/FVC ratio was slightly lower in non-smokers (p=0.021) as compared to smokers in diseased participants, but most spirometry measures showed non-significant statistical difference (p>0.05) between the groups. Whereas, there was a significant statistical difference (p<0.05) for FEV1 and FEV1/FVC when genderbased comparison was observed. Conclusion Significant effect of smoking was seen in some lung function effects when analyzed by gender and BMI. Differences between smokers and non-smokers were not significant throughout normal and diseased groups except FEV1/FVC. Bangladesh Journal of Medical Science Vol. 25. Supplementary Issue-2 (2026), Page : S345-S350

Nearly half of the world's population is women. Only 15% of women are represented in the legislature. Only 12 countries have women holding 33% or more of the seats in parliament (UNDP Report). Punjab is the most populous province in Pakistan. Compared with other provinces, women 's participation in the political process is relatively high. The main purpose of this research is to analyze in detail the changing nature of women's politics in the traditional society of Punjab, Pakistan in the last two general elections in 2013 and 2018.There was an increase in the number of women contesting for general seats in the 21st century, particularly in the 2013 and 2018 General Elections. Women play major roles as Speaker of the National Assembly, Deputy Speaker of the Sindh Assembly, a woman minister presenting the yearly budget, Ambassador, and so on. The single component of the general elections in 2013 and 2018, the story was refuted domestically and globally, that either women are hesitant to enter mainstream politics or are not taking on electoral politics obligations at the local, provincial, or national levels. Gender equality and women's political involvement, on the other hand, are still necessary internationally on the basis of equality with males. It will take time to transform the political structure of a society that follows centuries-old customs and patterns, as it does in Pakistan. However, the good aspect is that in Pakistan, the process of political reform in terms of women's participation in state activities has already begun.

Objective: The objective was to study megaloblastic anemia as a cause of pyrexia of unknown origin (PUO). Materials and Methods: We conducted a study on 15 patients of megaloblastic anemia associated with fever, attending our hospital clinics over a period of 6 months. Results: While 11 patients had symptoms suggesting foci of infection and responded well to intravenous antibiotics, 4 patients had neither any evidence of infection nor responded with empirical broad spectrum antibiotic treatment. They were treated with vitamin B12/folate therapy which led to marked improvement in fever within 48 h. Presenting complaints of the patients and severity/duration of fever along with other epidemiological data were also studied in each case. Conclusion: The present study led us to conclude that megaloblastic anemia forms an important and reversible cause of fever and should be ruled out in all patients presenting with PUO. This knowledge would help the physicians in adequate and timely management of these patients.

Animal models are extensively utilized in scientific research particularly biomedical research. Use of animal models for biomedical research has become imperative not only to enhance our understanding of current health issues but also to make progress in this vast field. In vitro and in vivo animal models have unraveled disease pathologies of numerous diseases. These models have served in disease diagnostics, pharmacological and toxicological testing of drugs, and surgical research, to name a few. This chapter aims to discuss the significance and relevance of in vivo and in vitro animal models for biomedical research.

The study investigates the association between social intelligence, empathy, and aggression in adults, employing a cross-sectional design. A sample of 200 adults (100 men and 100 women) aged 18-54 years was selected using a stratified sampling technique. Data was gathered via an online survey, and social intelligence, empathy, and aggression were assessed using the Tromso Social Intelligence Scale (TSIS), Empathy Assessment Scale (EAS), and Brief Aggression Questionnaire (BAQ), respectively. The SPSS analysis revealed a positive correlation between social intelligence and empathy, and a negative correlation between empathy and aggression. While social intelligence significantly predicted empathy, its impact on aggression was negligible. Females were observed to be more empathetic and less aggressive than were males, indicating notable gender differences in empathy and aggression. Physical aggression and hostility were significantly higher in males, while verbal aggression and anger were higher in females, though the latter was not statistically significant.