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The aim of the literature review was to describe the environments where the presence of airborne Staphylococcus aureus was confirmed and to catalogue the most often used methods and conditions of bioaerosol sampling to identify the bacteria. The basis for searching of studies on S. aureus in the bioaerosol in different environments was PubMed database resources from the years 1990–2019 (May). The review included studies which were carried on in selected environments: hospitals and other health care facilities, large-scale animal breeding, wastewater treatment plants, residential areas, educational institutions, and other public places. The highest concentrations and genetic diversity of identified S. aureus strains, including MRSA (methicillin-resistant S. aureus ), have been shown in large-scale animal breeding. The role of the airborne transmission in dissemination of infection caused by these pathogens is empirically confirmed in environmental studies. Commonly available, well-described, and relatively inexpensive methods of sampling, identification, and subtyping guarantee a high reliability of results and allow to obtain fast and verifiable outcomes in environmental studies on air transmission routes of S. aureus strains.

Intensive animal farming emits to the environment very high concentrations of bioaerosol, mainly composed of microorganisms, including antibiotics resistant strains, and their derivatives. Poland is a significant producer of poultry and swine in Europe; Ukraine is located in the immediate vicinity of Poland and the EU. Thus, the review focuses on the presence of potentially pathogenic and antimicrobial-resistant zoonotic bacteria and antimicrobial genes in the environment of farms and food of animal origin in Poland and Ukraine. Existing data confirms presence of these bacteria in the food animal origin chain environment in both countries. However, it is difficult to compare the scale of multidrug-resistant bacteria (e.g. MRSA, ESBL) dissemination in Poland and Ukraine with other EU countries due to lack of more extensive studies and large-scale monitoring in these two countries. A series of studies concerning resistance of pathogenic bacteria isolated from livestock environment have been published in Poland but usually on single farms with a very limited number of samples, and without a genotypic drug resistance marking. From Ukraine are available only few reports, but also disturbing. The risk of antibiotic-resistant bacteria transmission does not only concern animal farming, but also other facilities of animal origin food supply chains, especially slaughterhouses.

This communication is aimed at outlining the role of the National Register of Biological Agents (NRoBA) in the system of working conditions supervision in Poland. The paper was prepared based on a review of Polish legislation related to employee health protection, as well as scientific literature and recommendations of expert organizations regarding the intentional use of biological agents. Polish law obliges employers to protect the health and safety of employees occupationally exposed to harmful agents. The State Sanitary Inspection and the State Labor Inspection supervise the employer's fulfillment of these obligations. Occupational exposure to biological agents may result from their intentional use (e.g., in the biotechnology industry or a scientific laboratory) or be related to their unintentional presence (e.g., in healthcare, sewage treatment plants, municipal waste management plants). Making a distinction between these 2 types of exposure is important for employers in relation to their legal obligations. In the case of using harmful biological agents for scientific, industrial or diagnostic purposes, the employer is obliged to notify the State Sanitary Inspection. Such notifications from employers are gathered in the NRoBA. Its aim is to support hygiene supervision over the intentional use of biological agents and to increase the employer's attention to the protection of the health of employees exposed to these agents. The International Labor Organization (ILO) in 2023 published , in which it recommended increasing the capacity for epidemiological surveillance by creating networks or dedicated websites to collect and analyze adverse events in employees of research and development laboratories. The NRoBA complies with these guidelines but in order to use it in epidemiological studies, it should be re-digitalized to extend the range of collected data. The NRoBA in its present form has been used in Poland for almost 2 decades. Now it is time for re-digitalization to ensure its full compliance with the ILO recommendations and to use it in epidemiological studies. Int J Occup Med Environ Health. 2025;38(1):91-97.

The aim of review was to describe the knowledge about exposures to bacteria, fungi and viruses present in bioaerosol in residential environment in moderate climate condition, in connection with health effects in humans, their sources. The basis for the narrative literature review were peer-reviewed papers published between January 2000 and September 2023 in English and Polish, meeting the established criteria. Knowledge about fungi, bacteria and viruses harmful to humans that may be present in the indoor air of dwellings was described. Into review are included components of the cell walls of bacteria (endotoxins) and fungi ((1-3)-β-D-glucans) and produced by them primary or secondary metabolites, including microbial volatile organic compounds and mycotoxins. Health effects that may occur in individuals exposed to bioaerosol by inhalation are described, including infectious, allergic and immunotoxic effects, mainly in respiratory system. Harmful effects of high concentrations of fungi inhalation exposure in dampness and mouldy buildings were described. Significant animate and inanimate sources of bioaerosol in living environment were indicated. The most important results of the literature review are presented in form of tables. The quantitative and qualitative composition of bioaerosol depends on the type and number of sources of bacteria, fungi and viruses, microclimatic and climatic conditions, and the type and specificity of the building. The type of negative health effects in humans depends on the quantitative and qualitative composition of the bioaerosol and the individual susceptibility and health status of the person. Prevention of adverse health effects consists of limitations the number of sources and diluting the concentration of bioaerosol. Med Pr Work Health Saf. 2024;75(6):545–560

Background: The aim of the study was to assess the occupational exposure to Staphylococcus aureus bacteria, including methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) and other antibiotic-resistant strains in the municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) environment. Material and Methods: In 16 WWTPs in Poland, 33 wastewater and 253 air samples were collected in the spring-summer season. The microbiological analysis was carried out using a chromogenic medium. Species identification was carried out using the matrix assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight method, while the antibiotic-resistance analysis was performed with an automatic method. Results: Among 2805 bacterial isolates from the air and wastewater, 574 were identified as S. aureus species (20.5%). The presence of S. aureus species was found in 11 WWTPs (69%), among them in 11 WWTPs in raw wastewater and in 1 WWTP additionally in treated wastewater. The concentrations of S. aureus in wastewater ranged 2-1215 colony-forming units per milliliter (CFU/ml). In the air, 2 S. aureus isolates were identified in concentrations of 5 and 10 CFU/[m.sup.3]; both samples were collected at the stage of mechanical wastewater treatment. The results revealed the following trend: the higher the outdoor temperature, the bigger the number of WWTPs with confirmed S. aureus presence. Among 149 S. aureus isolates (2 from the air and 147 from wastewater, including 2 MRSA), 100 isolates were resistant only to penicillin, while 34 isolates showed multi-antibiotic resistance (to penicillin and other drugs). It was found that isolated bacteria were resistant almost strictly to critical and highly important antibiotics in veterinary medicine. Conclusions: In general, WWTPs workers are occupationally exposed to S. aureus, including MRSA, and other antibiotic- and multi-antibiotic-resistant strains. The highest risk of infection concerns the activities carried out in direct contact with wastewater or devices through which wastewater flows, particularly at the stage of mechanical treatment. A significant source of S. aureus seems to be intensive livestock farming located in the area of the WWTPs under analysis. The study confirms the necessity to disinfect the wastewater discharging into WWTPs. Key words: occupational exposure, antibiotic resistance, bioaerosol, MRSA, S. aureus, WWTP

Paper presents the intentional use of biological agents for industrial, diagnostic and research purposes in enterprises in Poland. The source of data is the National Register of Biological (in Polish KRCB) - the type of the database that gathers data about the intentional use of biological agents at work in Poland. The analysis includes tabular summaries of the data as of December 2017. Notifications were sent by 598 enterprises for: diagnostic - 67.5%, research - 25% and industrial purposes - 75%. Those mostly were hospital diagnostic laboratories - 36%, entities other than hospitals - 32% and higher education and research units - 13%. In total, 4477 workers (91.3% women, 8.7% men) were exposed to biological agents. Agents from 2nd and 3rd group of risk were used in 581 and 106 enterprises, respectively. bacteria was most frequently used (with the exception of non-pathogenic strains) in 504 enterprises (3529 exposed workers), - 495 enterprises (3464 workers) and - 459 enterprises (3157 workers). In 58 enterprises, biological agents recognized by the International Agency for Research on Cancer as carcinogenic were used (viruses: hepatitis B virus (HBV) - 10 enterprises and 257 workers, hepatitis C virus (HCV) - 10 enterprises and 232 workers, Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) - 9 enterprises and 227 workers, human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) - 8 enterprises and 186 workers, human papilloma virus (HPV) - 3 enterprises and 94 workers, human herpes virus type 8 (HHV-8) - 3 enterprises and 22 workers, human T-lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1) - 1 enterprise and 17 workers; parasites: - 2 enterprises and 4 workers, - 1 enterprises and 2 workers, - 1 enterprises and 2 workers; bacteria: - 10 enterprises and 137 workers). The network organization, legal base and central nature cause that the KRCB is a unique database that allows for diagnosis of the situation and tracking of dynamics in the context of occupational exposure to biological agents used intentionally in enterprises in Poland. Med Pr 2018;69(4):413-424.

Background The work presents the intentional use of harmful biological agents based on National Register of Biological Agents (Krajowego Rejestru Czynników Biologicznych – KRCB) collected by June 2023. Material and Methods The KRCB is a central database gathering notifications of the intentional use of biological agents in risk groups 2–4 in the workplace in accordance with the regulation of the Minister of Health of December 11, 2020 amending the regulation regarding biological agents. Results with the regulation of the Minister of Health of December 11, 2020 amending the regulation regarding biological agents. Results: Notifications were sent by 712 enterprises for: diagnostic – 62%, research – 31% and industrial purposes – 7%. Notifications were most often sent by hospital and non-hospital clinical and diagnostic laboratories (33% each group) and higher education and research units – 16%. In total, 7352 workers (88% women, 12% men) were exposed to biological agents intentionally used at work. Biological agents from 2 and 3 group risk were used by 98% and 16% enterprises, respectively. The most frequently were used bacteria Escherichia coli (with the exception of non-pathogenic strains) – 5972 (81%) exposed workers, Staphylococcus aureus – respectively 5760 (78%) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa – 5155 (70%). Among the total workers, nearly 25% were exposed to at least 1 biological agent carcinogenic to humans, including viruses (hepatitis B virus [HBV] – 1800 workers, 24%; hepatitis C virus [HCV] – respectively, 1767, 24%; human immunodeficiency virus-1 [HIV-1] – 1557, 21%; human gammaherpesvirus type 4 (Epstein-Barr virus) – 199, 3%; Papillomaviridae – 52, <1%; human gammaherpesvirus type 8 [HHV-8] – 16, <1%; human T-lymphotropic virus type 1 [HTLV- 1] – 38, <1%; bacteria Helicobacter pylori – 299, 4%; parasites Schistosoma haematobium – 9, <1%). Conclusions Intentionally used biological agents most often pose a threat to workers of hospital and non-hospital clinical and diagnostic laboratories, but a higher health risk concerns workers of and higher education and research units. Med Pr Work Health Saf. 2023;74(6):501–11.

This review is aimed at summarizing the current state of knowledge about the relationship between environmental exposure to the bioaerosol emitted by intensive livestock farming and changes in the microbiome of people living in livestock farm vicinity. The PubMed, Scopus and Web of Science databases were searched by crossing keywords from the following 3 groups: a) \"livestock,\" \"animal farms,\" \"animal breeding\"; b) \"microbiome,\" \"resistome\"; c) \"livestock vicinity,\" \"farm vicinity,\" \"neighborhoods and health\" in 2010-2022. Literature screening did not reveal any paper related to the full microbiome composition in the population studied. In the study, the authors included 7 papers (5 from the Netherlands, 1 from the USA, and 1 from China). The studies confirmed the carriage of , including methicillin-resistant (MRSA), livestockassociated MRSA (LA-MRSA MC398) and multidrug-resistant (MDRSA) in the nasal microbiome of adults and children living within 500-2000 m from a livestock farm. , including LA-ribotype RT078 carriage, was detected in the intestinal microbiome of adults living within 500-1000 m. Extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL) producing were confirmed in the intestinal microbiome of adults living within 500-6200 m. Knowledge on the composition of the microflora of people living in livestock farm vicinity is insufficient to conclude about changes in the microbiome caused by the environmental emission of bioaerosol. The carriage prevalence of the LA-bacteria, including both strains with antimicrobial resistance and antimicrobial resistance genes, confirms the presence of zoonotic bacteria in the human microflora in populations without occupational contact with animals. It cannot be ruled out that zoonotic bacteria, as a component of the microbiome, have a negative impact on people's health. Int J Occup Med Environ Health. 2024;37(2):138-52.

Background This work presents intentional use of harmful biological agents based on the National Register of Biological Agents (in Polish abbreviated as KRCB) as of July 2020. Material and Methods Generally, KRCB is a central database gathering notifications of intentional use of biological agents classified as risk groups 2–4 at work. Results Notifications were sent by 672 enterprises, including for diagnostic – 63%, research – 30% and industrial purposes – 7%. The largest number of notifications were sent by hospital-based diagnostic laboratories – 34%, laboratories other than hospital-based – 34%, and higher education and research units – 15%. In total, 7077 workers (88% women, 12% men) were exposed to biological agents intentionally used at work. The following bacteria were most frequently used: Escherichia coli (with the exception of non-pathogenic strains) – 4394 (62%) exposed workers, Staphylococcus aureus –4122 (58%), and Pseudomonas aeruginosa – 3726 (53%). Biological agents recognized by the International Agency for Research on Cancer as carcinogenic were used in 107 enterprises (16%), including the following viruses: hepatitis B virus (HBV) – 25 enterprises (4%), hepatitis C virus (HCV) – 24 (4%), human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) – 18 (3%), Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) – 10 (1%), human papilloma virus (HPV) – 5 (1%), human herpes virus type 8 (HHV-8) – 3 (<1%), human T-lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1) – 3 (<1%), as well as bacteria Helicobacter pylori – 18 (3%) and parasites Schistosoma haematobium – 1 (<1%). Conclusions While KRCB is a unique source of information on biological agents intentionally used in workplaces, it also provides an important link in the chain of information on occupational exposure to harmful agents in Poland. Med. Pr. 2021;72(2):131–43