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ABSTRACT Murine macrophages are activated by interferon-γ (IFN-γ) and/or Toll-like receptor (TLR) agonists such as bacterial endotoxin (lipopolysaccharide [LPS]) to express an inflammatory (M1) phenotype characterized by the expression of nitric oxide synthase-2 (iNOS) and inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin (IL)-12. In contrast, Th2 cytokines IL-4 and IL-13 activate macrophages by inducing the expression of arginase-1 and the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 in an IL-4 receptor-α (IL-4Rα)-dependent manner. Macrophages activated in this way are designated as “alternatively activated” (M2a) macrophages. We have shown previously that adenosine A 2A receptor (A 2A R) agonists act synergistically with TLR2, TLR4, TLR7, and TLR9 agonists to switch macrophages into an “M2-like” phenotype that we have termed “M2d.” Adenosine signaling suppresses the TLR-dependent expression of TNF-α, IL-12, IFN-γ, and several other inflammatory cytokines by macrophages and induces the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and IL-10. We show here using mice lacking a functional IL-4Rα gene (IL-4Rα −/− mice) that this adenosine-mediated switch does not require IL-4Rα-dependent signaling. M2d macrophages express high levels of VEGF, IL-10, and iNOS, low levels of TNF-α and IL-12, and mildly elevated levels of arginase-1. In contrast, M2d macrophages do not express Ym1, Fizz1 (RELM-α), or CD206 at levels greater than those induced by LPS, and dectin-1 expression is suppressed. The use of these markers in vivo to identify “M2” macrophages thus provides an incomplete picture of macrophage functional status and should be viewed with caution.

Epigenetic modulators, including histone methylases, demethylases, and deacetylases, have been implicated previously in the regulation of classical and alternative macrophage activation pathways. In this study, we show that the histone acetyl transferase (HAT) Kat6B (MYST4) is strongly suppressed (>80%) in macrophages by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) (M1 activation), while Kat6A, its partner in the MOZ/MORF complex, is reciprocally upregulated. This pattern of expression is not altered by LPS together with the adenosine receptor agonist NECA (M2d activation). This is despite the observation that miR-487b, a putative regulator of Kat6B expression, is mildly stimulated by LPS, but strongly suppressed by LPS/NECA. Other members of the MYST family of HATs (Kat5, Kat7, and Kat8) are unaffected by LPS treatment. Using the pLightswitch 3′UTR reporter plasmid, the miR-487b binding site in the Kat6b 3′UTR was found to play a role in the LPS-mediated suppression of Kat6B expression, but other as-yet unidentified factors are also involved. As Kat6B is a HAT that has the potential to modulate gene expression by its effects on chromatin accessibility, we are continuing our studies into the potential roles of this epigenetic modulator in macrophage activation pathways.

Under normoxic conditions, macrophages from C57BL mice produce low levels of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). Hypoxia stimulates VEGF expression by ∼500%; interferon-γ (IFN-γ) with endotoxin [lipopolysaccharide (LPS)] also stimulates VEGF expression by ∼50 to 150% in an inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS)-dependent manner. Treatment of normoxic macrophages with 5′-N-ethyl-carboxamido-adenosine (NECA), a nonselective adenosine A2 receptor agonist, or with 2-[p-(2-carboxyethyl)-phenylethyl amino]-5′-N-ethyl-carboxamido-adenosine (CGS21680), a specific adenosine A2A receptor agonist, modestly increases VEGF expression, whereas 2-chloro-N6-cyclopentyl adenosine (CCPA), an adenosine A1 agonist, does not. Treatment with LPS (0 to 1000 ng/ml), or with IFN-γ (0 to 300 U/ml), does not affect VEGF expression. In the presence of LPS (EC50 < 10 ng/ml), but not of IFN-γ, both NECA and CGS21680 synergistically up-regulate VEGF expression by as much as 10-fold. This VEGF is biologically active in vivo in the rat corneal bioassay of angiogenesis. Inhibitors of iNOS do not affect this synergistic induction of VEGF, and macrophages from iNOS−/− mice produce similar levels of VEGF as wild-type mice, indicating that NO does not play a role in this induction. Under hypoxic conditions, VEGF expression is slightly increased by adenosine receptor agonists but adenosine A2 or A1 receptor antagonists 3,7-dimethyl-1-propargyl xanthine (DMPX), ZM241385, and 8-cyclopentyl-1,3-dipropylxanthine (DCPCX) do not modulate VEGF expression. VEGF expression is also not reduced in hypoxic macrophages from A3−/− and A2A−/− mice. Thus, VEGF expression by hypoxic macrophages does not seem to depend on endogenously released or exogenous adenosine. VEGF expression is strongly up-regulated by LPS/NECA in macrophages from A3−/− but not A2A−/− mice, confirming the role of adenosine A2A receptors in this pathway. LPS with NECA strongly up-regulates VEGF expression by macrophages from C3H/HeN mice (with intact Tlr4 receptors), but not by macrophages from C3H/HeJ mice (with mutated, functionally inactive Tlr4 receptors), implicating signaling through the Tlr4 pathway in this synergistic up-regulation. Finally, Western blot analysis of adenosine A2A receptor expression indicated that the synergistic interaction of LPS with A2A receptor agonists does not involve up-regulation of A2A receptors by LPS. These results indicate that in murine macrophages there is a novel pathway regulating VEGF production, that involves the synergistic interaction of adenosine A2A receptor agonists through A2A receptors with LPS through the Tlr4 pathway, resulting in the strong up-regulation of VEGF expression by macrophages in a hypoxia- and NO-independent manner.

Murine thioglycolate-induced peritoneal macrophages (MPMs) and the murine RAW264.7 macrophage-like cell line (RAW cells) constitutively produce vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). VEGF production is increased under hypoxic conditions or after cell activation with interferon-gamma (IFNgamma) and endotoxin (lipopolysaccharide, LPS). In contrast, tumor necrosis factor-alpha is produced only by IFNgamma/LPS-activated cells. Lactate (25 mmol/L) does not increase VEGF production by these cells. However, hypoxia, lactate, and IFNgamma/LPS-activated MPMs express angiogenic activity, whereas normoxic, nonactivated MPMs do not. Lack of angiogenic activity is not due to an antiangiogenic factor(s) in the medium of these cells. Angiogenic activity produced by hypoxia and lactate-treated MPMs is neutralized by anti-VEGF antibody, which also neutralizes most of the angiogenic activity produced by IFNgamma/LPS-activated MPMs. The inducible nitric oxide synthase inhibitors Ng-nitro-L-arginine-methyl ester (1.5 mmol/L) and aminoguanidine (1 mmol/L) block production of angiogenic activity by MPMs and RAW cells. In RAW cells, Ng-nitro-L-arginine-methyl ester and AG block IFNgamma/LPS-activated, but not constitutive, VEGF production, whereas in MPMs, neither constitutive nor IFNgamma/LPS-activated VEGF synthesis is affected. Synthesis of tumor necrosis factor-alpha is also unaffected. In contrast to normoxic, nonactivated MPMs, inducible nitric oxide synthase-inhibited, IFNgamma/LPS-activated MPMs produce an antiangiogenic factor(s). We conclude that VEGF is a major contributor to macrophage-derived angiogenic activity, and that activation by hypoxia, lactate, or IFNgamma/LPS switches macrophage-derived VEGF from a nonangiogenic to an angiogenic state. This switch may involve a posttranslational modification of VEGF, possibly by the process of ADP-ribosylation. ADP-ribosylation by MPM cytosolic extracts or by cholera toxin switches rVEGF165 from an angiogenic to a nonangiogenic state. In IFNgamma/LPS-activated MPMs, the inducible nitric oxide synthase-dependent pathway also regulates the expression of an antiangiogenic factor(s) that antagonizes the bioactivity of VEGF and provides an additional regulatory pathway controlling the angiogenic phenotype of macrophages.

Under normoxic conditions, macrophages from C57BL mice produce low levels of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). Hypoxia stimulates VEGF expression by approximately 500%; interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) with endotoxin [lipopolysaccharide (LPS)] also stimulates VEGF expression by approximately 50 to 150% in an inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS)-dependent manner. Treatment of normoxic macrophages with 5'-N-ethyl-carboxamido-adenosine (NECA), a nonselective adenosine A(2) receptor agonist, or with 2-[p-(2-carboxyethyl)-phenylethyl amino]-5'-N-ethyl-carboxamido-adenosine (CGS21680), a specific adenosine A(2A) receptor agonist, modestly increases VEGF expression, whereas 2-chloro-N(6)-cyclopentyl adenosine (CCPA), an adenosine A(1) agonist, does not. Treatment with LPS (0 to 1000 ng/ml), or with IFN-gamma (0 to 300 U/ml), does not affect VEGF expression. In the presence of LPS (EC(50) < 10 ng/ml), but not of IFN-gamma, both NECA and CGS21680 synergistically up-regulate VEGF expression by as much as 10-fold. This VEGF is biologically active in vivo in the rat corneal bioassay of angiogenesis. Inhibitors of iNOS do not affect this synergistic induction of VEGF, and macrophages from iNOS-/- mice produce similar levels of VEGF as wild-type mice, indicating that NO does not play a role in this induction. Under hypoxic conditions, VEGF expression is slightly increased by adenosine receptor agonists but adenosine A(2) or A(1) receptor antagonists 3,7-dimethyl-1-propargyl xanthine (DMPX), ZM241385, and 8-cyclopentyl-1,3-dipropylxanthine (DCPCX) do not modulate VEGF expression. VEGF expression is also not reduced in hypoxic macrophages from A(3)-/- and A(2A)-/- mice. Thus, VEGF expression by hypoxic macrophages does not seem to depend on endogenously released or exogenous adenosine. VEGF expression is strongly up-regulated by LPS/NECA in macrophages from A(3)-/- but not A(2A)-/- mice, confirming the role of adenosine A(2A) receptors in this pathway. LPS with NECA strongly up-regulates VEGF expression by macrophages from C(3)H/HeN mice (with intact Tlr4 receptors), but not by macrophages from C(3)H/HeJ mice (with mutated, functionally inactive Tlr4 receptors), implicating signaling through the Tlr4 pathway in this synergistic up-regulation. Finally, Western blot analysis of adenosine A(2A) receptor expression indicated that the synergistic interaction of LPS with A(2A) receptor agonists does not involve up-regulation of A(2A) receptors by LPS. These results indicate that in murine macrophages there is a novel pathway regulating VEGF production, that involves the synergistic interaction of adenosine A(2A) receptor agonists through A(2A) receptors with LPS through the Tlr4 pathway, resulting in the strong up-regulation of VEGF expression by macrophages in a hypoxia- and NO-independent manner.

Murine thioglycolate-induced peritoneal macrophages (MPMs) and the murine RAW264.7 macrophage-like cell line (RAW cells) constitutively produce vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). VEGF production is increased under hypoxic conditions or after cell activation with interferon-γ (IFNγ) and endotoxin (lipopolysaccharide, LPS). In contrast, tumor necrosis factor-α is produced only by IFNγ/LPS-activated cells. Lactate (25 mmol/L) does not increase VEGF production by these cells. However, hypoxia, lactate, and IFNγ/LPS-activated MPMs express angiogenic activity, whereas normoxic, nonactivated MPMs do not. Lack of angiogenic activity is not due to an antiangiogenic factor(s) in the medium of these cells. Angiogenic activity produced by hypoxia and lactate-treated MPMs is neutralized by anti-VEGF antibody, which also neutralizes most of the angiogenic activity produced by IFNγ/LPS-activated MPMs. The inducible nitric oxide synthase inhibitors N g-nitro- l-arginine-methyl ester (1.5 mmol/L) and aminoguanidine (1 mmol/L) block production of angiogenic activity by MPMs and RAW cells. In RAW cells, N g-nitro- l-arginine-methyl ester and AG block IFNγ/LPS-activated, but not constitutive, VEGF production, whereas in MPMs, neither constitutive nor IFNγ/LPS-activated VEGF synthesis is affected. Synthesis of tumor necrosis factor-α is also unaffected. In contrast to normoxic, nonactivated MPMs, inducible nitric oxide synthase-inhibited, IFNγ/LPS-activated MPMs produce an antiangiogenic factor(s). We conclude that VEGF is a major contributor to macrophage-derived angiogenic activity, and that activation by hypoxia, lactate, or IFNγ/LPS switches macrophage-derived VEGF from a nonangiogenic to an angiogenic state. This switch may involve a posttranslational modification of VEGF, possibly by the process of ADP-ribosylation. ADP-ribosylation by MPM cytosolic extracts or by cholera toxin switches rVEGF 165 from an angiogenic to a nonangiogenic state. In IFNγ/LPS-activated MPMs, the inducible nitric oxide synthase-dependent pathway also regulates the expression of an antiangiogenic factor(s) that antagonizes the bioactivity of VEGF and provides an additional regulatory pathway controlling the angiogenic phenotype of macrophages.

The cytomegalovirus (CMV) major immediate-early promoter is a strong promoter used for both in vitro and in vivo expression of proteins in signal transduction and gene therapy studies. CMV activity is induced by external stimuli such as endotoxin from Gram-negative bacteria (LPS), TNF-alpha and phorbol esters. This inducibility poses problems when this promoter is used to drive the expression of either wild type or dominant negative mutated proteins as tools in signal transduction studies. This report draws attention to the problem associated with this widely used approach. The role of NF-kappaB and Hypoxia Inducible Factor-1alpha (HIF-1alpha) in the transcriptional regulation of Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF) in macrophages was investigated using CMV-promoter-driven expression of either wild type or dominant negative proteins involved in these pathways. Difficulties encountered while interpreting the data due to the inducibility of the CMV promoter by LPS are highlighted in this report and provide a cautionary note for the evaluation of data acquired using this approach.

Under normoxic conditions, macrophages from C57BL mice produce low levels of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). Hypoxia stimulates VEGF expression by ∼500%; interferon-γ (IFN-γ) with endotoxin [lipopolysaccharide (LPS)] also stimulates VEGF expression by ∼50 to 150% in an inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS)-dependent manner. Treatment of normoxic macrophages with 5′- N-ethyl-carboxamido-adenosine (NECA), a nonselective adenosine A 2 receptor agonist, or with 2-[ p-(2-carboxyethyl)-phenylethyl amino]-5′- N-ethyl-carboxamido-adenosine (CGS21680), a specific adenosine A 2A receptor agonist, modestly increases VEGF expression, whereas 2-chloro- N 6-cyclopentyl adenosine (CCPA), an adenosine A 1 agonist, does not. Treatment with LPS (0 to 1000 ng/ml), or with IFN-γ (0 to 300 U/ml), does not affect VEGF expression. In the presence of LPS (EC 50 < 10 ng/ml), but not of IFN-γ, both NECA and CGS21680 synergistically up-regulate VEGF expression by as much as 10-fold. This VEGF is biologically active in vivo in the rat corneal bioassay of angiogenesis. Inhibitors of iNOS do not affect this synergistic induction of VEGF, and macrophages from iNOS−/− mice produce similar levels of VEGF as wild-type mice, indicating that NO does not play a role in this induction. Under hypoxic conditions, VEGF expression is slightly increased by adenosine receptor agonists but adenosine A 2 or A 1 receptor antagonists 3,7-dimethyl-1-propargyl xanthine (DMPX), ZM241385, and 8-cyclopentyl-1,3-dipropylxanthine (DCPCX) do not modulate VEGF expression. VEGF expression is also not reduced in hypoxic macrophages from A 3−/− and A 2A−/− mice. Thus, VEGF expression by hypoxic macrophages does not seem to depend on endogenously released or exogenous adenosine. VEGF expression is strongly up-regulated by LPS/NECA in macrophages from A 3−/− but not A 2A−/− mice, confirming the role of adenosine A 2A receptors in this pathway. LPS with NECA strongly up-regulates VEGF expression by macrophages from C 3H/HeN mice (with intact Tlr4 receptors), but not by macrophages from C 3H/HeJ mice (with mutated, functionally inactive Tlr4 receptors), implicating signaling through the Tlr4 pathway in this synergistic up-regulation. Finally, Western blot analysis of adenosine A 2A receptor expression indicated that the synergistic interaction of LPS with A 2A receptor agonists does not involve up-regulation of A 2A receptors by LPS. These results indicate that in murine macrophages there is a novel pathway regulating VEGF production, that involves the synergistic interaction of adenosine A 2A receptor agonists through A 2A receptors with LPS through the Tlr4 pathway, resulting in the strong up-regulation of VEGF expression by macrophages in a hypoxia- and NO-independent manner.

Partial enzymic degradations have been used to study fine features of the structure and stability of collagen, using essentially an electron microscopic methodology. The work presented in this thesis falls into three main categories: (1) The effects of certain endo- and exopeptidases on tropocollagen;. (2) The action of human collagenase on bovine and human tropocollagens; and (3) The application of these studies to the Investigation of differences between normal and diseased human synovial polymeric collagens. (1) The effects of endo- and exopeptidases on tropocollagen. This work started with an attempt to produce well ordered SLS for use in the electron microscopic location of specific amino acids, following a report that better ordered SLS could be formed after pepsin treatment. When it became apparent that there was visible shortening at both ends of the tropocollagen molecule after pepsin digestion, a detailed study of the morphology of the SLS and of the fibrils produced from tropocollagen after treatment with this endopeptidase, and with two exopeptidases, leucine aminopeptidase and carboxypeptidase was initiated. Treatment with leucine-aminopeptidase resulted in shortening at the A (N-terminal) end of the molecule. Carboxypeptidase digestion revealed a shortening at the B (C-terminal) end of the molecule. Fibrils from pepsin digested tropocollagen showed changes in morphology dependent on the length of exposure to pepsin. Short digestion (1-5 hours) gave rise to fibrils with a symmetric band pattern. After 20 hours, tactoidal structures with both polarised and symmetric band patterns were formed. Prolonged digestion (5 days) gave rise predominantly to symmetric tactoids. Digestion of tropocollagen with leucine amino peptidase gave rise to symmetric fibrils. Digestion with carboxypeptidase gave rise to polarised tactoids. A hypothesis suggesting that the A end of the tropocollagen molecule is required for orientation of molecules within a fibril and that the B end is required for a fibril diameter limiting mechanism is proposed on the basis of these results, The physicochemical and physiological Implications of this hypothesis are discussed. (2) The action of human, collagenase on bovine and human tropocollagens. The sites of cleavage of bovine and human tropocollagens with a human collagenase (prepared from rheumatoid arthritic synovia) were studied, and differences between the action of the enzyme on bovine and human tropocollagens were observed. It was observed that collagenase removes regions from both A and B ends of the human tropocollagen molecule, but apparently does not remove these regions from bovine tropocollagen. Distinct differences in the morphology of SLS's from bovine and human tropocollagens after collagenase treatment were noted, and a hypothesis to explain the shape of SLS is proposed on the basis of these results.