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Polyacrylic acid (PAA) and its derivatives are commonly used as essential matrices in wound dressings, but their weak wet adhesion restricts the clinical application. To address this issue, a PAA-based coacervate hydrogel with strong wet adhesion capability is fabricated through a facile mixture of PAA copolymers with isoprenyl oxy poly(ethylene glycol) ether and tannic acid (TA). The poly(ethylene glycol) segments on PAA prevent the electrostatic repulsion among the ionized carboxyl groups and absorbed TA to form coacervates. The absorbed TA provides solid adhesion to dry and wet substrates via multifarious interactions, which endows the coacervate with an adhesive strength to skin of 23.4 kPa and 70% adhesion underwater. This coacervate achieves desirable self-healing and extensible properties suitable for frequently moving joints. These investigations prove that the coacervate has strong antibacterial activity, facilitates fibroblast migration, and modulates M1/M2 polarization of macrophages. In vivo hemorrhage experiments further confirm that the coacervate dramatically shortens the hemostatic time from hundreds to tens of seconds. In addition, full-thickness skin defect experiments demonstrate that the coacervate achieves the best therapeutic effect by significantly promoting collagen deposition, angiogenesis, and epithelialization. These results demonstrate that a PAA-based coacervate hydrogel is a promising wound dressing for medical translation.

Cadmium sulfide nanoparticles (CdS NPs) have been employed in various fields of nanobiotechnology due to their proven biomedical properties. They are unique in their properties due to their size and shape, and they are popular in the area of biosensors, bioimaging, and antibacterial and anticancer applications. Most CdS NPs are generally synthesized through chemical, physical, or biological methods. Among these methods, biogenic synthesis has attracted more attention due to its high efficiency, environmental friendliness, and biocompatibility features. The green approach was found to be superior to other methods in terms of maintaining the structural characteristics needed for optimal biomedical applications. The size and coating components of CdS NPs play a crucial role in their biomedical activities, such as anticancer, antibacterial, bioimaging, and biosensing applications. CdS NPs have gained significant interest in bioimaging due to their desirable properties, including good dispersion, cell integrity preservation, and efficient light scattering. Despite these, further studies are necessary, particularly in vivo studies to reduce NPs’ toxicity. This review discusses the different methods of synthesis, how CdS NPs are characterized, and their applications in the biomedical field.

Self-assembly is a growth mechanism in nature to apply local interactions forming a minimum energy structure. Currently, self-assembled materials are considered for biomedical applications due to their pleasant features, including scalability, versatility, simplicity, and inexpensiveness. Self-assembled peptides can be applied to design and fabricate different structures, such as micelles, hydrogels, and vesicles, by diverse physical interactions between specific building blocks. Among them, bioactivity, biocompatibility, and biodegradability of peptide hydrogels have introduced them as versatile platforms in biomedical applications, such as drug delivery, tissue engineering, biosensing, and treating different diseases. Moreover, peptides are capable of mimicking the microenvironment of natural tissues and responding to internal and external stimuli for triggered drug release. In the current review, the unique characteristics of peptide hydrogels and recent advances in their design, fabrication, as well as chemical, physical, and biological properties are presented. Additionally, recent developments of these biomaterials are discussed with a particular focus on their biomedical applications in targeted drug delivery and gene delivery, stem cell therapy, cancer therapy and immune regulation, bioimaging, and regenerative medicine.

The treatment of wounds is a worldwide challenge, and wound infection can affect the effectiveness of wound treatment and further increase the disease burden. Copper is an essential trace element that has been shown to have broad-spectrum antibacterial effects and to be involved in the inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling stages of wound healing. Compared to treatments such as bioactive factors and skin grafts, copper has the advantage of being low-cost and easily available, and has received a lot of attention in wound healing. Recently, biomaterials made by incorporating copper into bioactive glasses, polymeric scaffolds and hydrogels have been used to promote wound healing by the release of copper ions. In addition, copper-incorporated biomaterials with catalytic, photothermal, and photosensitive properties can also accelerate wound healing through antibacterial and wound microenvironment regulation. This review summarizes the antibacterial mechanisms of copper- incorporated biomaterials and their roles in wound healing, and discusses the current challenges. A comprehensive understanding of the role of copper in wounds will help to facilitate new preclinical and clinical studies, thus leading to the development of novel therapeutic tools.

Over the past decades, considerable attention has been dedicated to the exploitation of diverse immune cells as therapeutic and/or diagnostic cell‐based microrobots for hard‐to‐treat disorders. To date, a plethora of therapeutics based on alive immune cells, surface‐engineered immune cells, immunocytes’ cell membranes, leukocyte‐derived extracellular vesicles or exosomes, and artificial immune cells have been investigated and a few have been introduced into the market. These systems take advantage of the unique characteristics and functions of immune cells, including their presence in circulating blood and various tissues, complex crosstalk properties, high affinity to different self and foreign markers, unique potential of their on‐demand navigation and activity, production of a variety of chemokines/cytokines, as well as being cytotoxic in particular conditions. Here, the latest progress in the development of engineered therapeutics and diagnostics inspired by immune cells to ameliorate cancer, inflammatory conditions, autoimmune diseases, neurodegenerative disorders, cardiovascular complications, and infectious diseases is reviewed, and finally, the perspective for their clinical application is delineated. Synthetic biology is a rapidly growing technology that has an enormous potential for the development of novel therapeutics and imaging tools. This review focuses on the latest progress in the design of immune cell‐derived microrobots and biomimetic nanoparticles as engineered biocarriers to ameliorate hard‐to‐treat diseases.

This review highlights recent advancements in the synthesis, processing, properties, and applications of 2D‐material integrated hydrogels, with a focus on their performance in bone‐related applications. Various synthesis methods and types of 2D nanomaterials, including graphene, graphene oxide, transition metal dichalcogenides, black phosphorus, and MXene are discussed, along with strategies for their incorporation into hydrogel matrices. These composite hydrogels exhibit tunable mechanical properties, high surface area, strong near‐infrared (NIR) photon absorption and controlled release capabilities, making them suitable for a range of regeneration and therapeutic applications. In cancer therapy, 2D‐material‐based hydrogels show promise for photothermal and photodynamic therapies, and drug delivery (chemotherapy). The photothermal properties of these materials enable selective tumor ablation upon NIR irradiation, while their high drug‐loading capacity facilitates targeted and controlled release of chemotherapeutic agents. Additionally, 2D‐materials ‐infused hydrogels exhibit potent antibacterial activity, making them effective against multidrug‐resistant infections and disruption of biofilm generated on implant surface. Moreover, their synergistic therapy approach combines multiple treatment modalities such as photothermal, chemo, and immunotherapy to enhance therapeutic outcomes. In bio‐imaging, these materials serve as versatile contrast agents and imaging probes, enabling their real‐time monitoring during tumor imaging. Furthermore, in bone regeneration, most 2D‐materials incorporated hydrogels promote osteogenesis and tissue regeneration, offering potential solutions for bone defects repair. Overall, the integration of 2D materials into hydrogels presents a promising platform for developing multifunctional theragenerative biomaterials. 2D nanomaterials, with their ultrathin structures and unique properties, have revolutionized hydrogel‐based therapies for bone regeneration and disease treatment. This review discusses advancements in integrating 2D materials like graphene and MXene into hydrogels, enhancing their mechanical properties, drug release capabilities, and therapeutic efficacy in bone repair, cancer treatments, and antibacterial applications.

PurposeThe aim of this study was to introduce a smart and responsive drug carrier for Doxorubicin (DOX) and Paclitaxel (PAX) for desirable therapeutic application.MethodLoading and releasing of DOX and PAX from smart and pH-sensitive functionalized single-walled carbon nanotube (SWCNTs) and graphene carriers have been simulated by molecular dynamics. The influences of chitosan polymer on proposed carriers have been studied, and both carriers were functionalized with carboxyl groups to improve the loading and releasing properties of the drugs.ResultsThe results showed that DOX could be well adsorbed on both functionalized SWCNTs and graphene. In contrast, there was a weak electrostatic and Van der Waals interaction between both these drugs and carriers at cancerous tissues, which is highly favorable for cancer therapy. Adding trimethyl chitosan (TMC) polymer to carriers facilitated DOX release at acidic tissues. Furthermore, at blood pH, the PAX loaded on the functionalized SWCNTs carrier represented the highest dispersion of the drug while the DOX-graphene showed the highest concentration of the drug at a point. In addition, the mean-square displacement (MSD) results of PAX-graphene indicated that the PAX could be adsorbed quickly and be released slowly. Finally, functionalized graphene-TMC-PAX is a smart drug system with responsive behavior and controllable drug release, which are essential in cancer therapy.ConclusionSimultaneous application of the carboxyl group and TMC can optimize the pH sensitivity of the SWCNTs and graphene to prepare a novel and smart drug carrier for cancer therapy.

Staphylococcus aureus is a unique challenge for the healthcare system because it can form biofilms, is resistant to the host's immune system, and is resistant to numerous antimicrobial therapies. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) polymer nanoparticles loaded with vancomycin and conjugated with lysostaphin (PLGA-VAN-LYS) on inhibiting S. aureus biofilm formation. Nano drug carriers were produced using the double emulsion evaporation process. we examined the physicochemical characteristics of the nanoparticles, including particle size, polydispersity index (PDI), zeta potential, drug loading (DL), entrapment efficiency (EE), Lysostaphin conjugation efficiency (LCE), and shape. The effect of the nano drug carriers on S. aureus strains was evaluated by determining the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), conducting biofilm formation inhibition studies, and performing agar well diffusion tests. The average size, PDI, zeta potential, DL, EE, and LCE of PLGA-VAN-LYS were 320.5 ± 35 nm, 0.270 ± 0.012, -19.5 ± 1.3 mV, 16.75 ± 2.5%, 94.62 ± 2.6%, and 37% respectively. Both the agar well diffusion and MIC tests did not show a distinction between vancomycin and the nano drug carriers after 72 h. However, the results of the biofilm analysis demonstrated that the nano drug carrier had a stronger inhibitory effect on biofilm formation compared to the free drug. The use of this technology for treating hospital infections caused by the Staphylococcus bacteria may have favorable effects on staphylococcal infections, considering the efficacy of the nano medicine carrier developed in this study.

Polymicrobial communities lead to worsen the wound infections, due to mixed biofilms, increased antibiotic resistance, and altered virulence production. Promising approaches, including enzymes, may overcome the complicated condition of polymicrobial infections. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate Staphopain A-mediated virulence and resistance alteration in an animal model of Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa co-infection. S. aureus and P. aeruginosa were co-cultured on the L-929 cell line and wound infection in an animal model. Then, recombinant staphopain A was purified and used to treat mono- and co-infections. Following the treatment, changes in virulence factors and resistance were investigated through phenotypic methods and RT-PCR. Staphopain A resulted in a notable reduction in the viability of S. aureus and P. aeruginosa . The biofilm formed in the wound infection in both animal model and cell culture was disrupted remarkably. Moreover, the biofilm-encoding genes, quorum sensing regulating genes, and virulence factors (hemolysin and pyocyanin) controlled by QS were down-regulated in both microorganisms. Furthermore, the resistance to vancomycin and doripenem decreased following treatment with staphopain A. According to this study, staphopain A might promote wound healing and cure co-infection. It seems to be a promising agent to combine with antibiotics to overcome hard-to-cure infections.

Infected fracture healing is a complicated process that includes intricate interactions at the cellular and molecular levels. In addition to angiogenesis and osteogenesis, the significance of neurogenesis in fracture healing has also been recognized in recent years. Here, a nanocomposite hydrogel containing pH‐responsive zinc‐gallium‐humic acids (HAs) nanoparticles is developed. Through the timed release of Zn2+, Ga3+, and HAs, the hydrogel exhibits potent antibacterial effects and promotes angiogenesis, osteogenesis, and neurogenesis. The enhanced neurogenesis further promotes angiogenesis and osteogenesis, forming a mutually supportive angiogenesis–osteogenesis–neurogenesis cycle at the fracture site. The hydrogel achieves rapid infected fracture healing and improves tissue regeneration in mice. This study proposes a comprehensive treatment approach that combines antibacterial effects with the regulation of tissue regeneration to improve infected fracture healing. A pH‐responsive nanoarchitecture‐integrated hydrogel is developed to treat drug‐resistant bacteria‐infected fracture healing. Through the controlled release of humic acids, Zn2+, and Ga3+, the hydrogel eradicates bacterial infection, alleviates oxidative stress, and promotes angiogenesis, osteogenesis, and neurogenesis, offering a whole‐course‐repair strategy to accelerate fracture healing in a MRSA‐infected fracture model.