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Background Studying human health in areas with industrial contamination is a serious and complex issue. In recent years, attention has increasingly focused on the health implications of large industrial complexes. A variety of potential toxic chemicals have been produced during manufacturing processes and activities in industrial complexes in South Korea. A large number of dyeing industries gathered together in Daegu dyeing industrial complex. The residents near the industrial complex could be often exposed to volatile organic compounds. This study aimed to evaluate VOCs levels in the ambient air of DDIC, to assess the impact on human health risks, and to find more convincing evidences to prove these VOCs emitted from DDIC. Methods According to deterministic risk assessment, inhalation was the most important route. Residential indoor, outdoor and personal exposure air VOCs were measured by passive samplers in exposed area and controlled area in different seasons. Satisfaction with ambient environments and self-reported diseases were also obtained by questionnaire survey. The VOCs concentrations in exposed area and controlled area was compared by t-test. The relationships among every VOC were tested by correlation. The values of hazard quotient (HQ) and life cancer risk were estimated. Results The concentrations of measured VOCs were presented, moreover, the variety of concentrations according the distances from the residential settings to the industrial complex site in exposed area. The residential indoor, outdoor, and personal exposure concentrations of toluene, DMF and chloroform in exposed area were significantly higher than the corresponding concentrations in controlled area both in summer and autumn. Toluene, DMF, chloroform and MEK had significantly positive correlations with each other in indoor and outdoor, and even in personal exposure. The HQ for DMF exceeded 1, and the life cancer risk of chloroform was greater than 10 − 4 in exposed area. The prevalence of respiratory diseases, anaphylactic diseases and cardiovascular diseases in exposed area were significantly higher than in controlled area. Conclusions This study showed that adverse cancer and non-cancer health effects may occur by VOCs emitted from DDIC, and some risk managements are needed. Moreover, this study provides a convenient preliminarily method for pollutants source characteristics.

Accelerated urban and industrial expansion has intensified anthropogenic activities, increasing the emission and accumulation of hazardous substances in air, water, and soil. This study assessed health risks from heavy metals in indoor settled dust collected from Myodo-dong, Yeosu, Republic of Korea, by estimating exposure via inhalation, dermal contact, and ingestion, deriving protective exposure limits, and identifying emission sources using multivariate analysis. Indoor settled dust samples from 20 of 50 households showed elevated heavy metal concentrations, with zinc (Zn) having the highest mean level (4,912.01 µg/g). Ingestion was the dominant exposure route. Non-carcinogenic risks were within acceptable limits, while carcinogenic risks surpassed 1.0 × 10 − 6 for cadmium (Cd) and nickel (Ni). Cd risk was mainly ingestion-driven, whereas Ni posed the greatest concern through ingestion and dermal exposure. Lead (Pb) showed consistently low risk. Source identifications were analyzed using Pearson correlation, principal component analysis (PCA), and hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA), which grouped metals into three clusters, suggesting shared industrial origins. Positive matrix factorization (PMF) resolved five sources, four of which matched industrial sectors in pollutant release and transfer register (PRTR) data, including battery manufacturing, plastics, non-ferrous metal processing, and ceramics. Source 1, dominated by Cd, was not identified due to inventory gaps, but fenceline regression showed a strong correlation (R 2  = 0.983, p  < 0.01) between Cd in ambient air and indoor settled dust, implicating emissions from a nearby steel facility.

The importance of disinfection has recently increased owing to the spread of infections, such as coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). However, exposure to the biocidal products used for disinfection poses health risks. This study aimed to determine the safe use of biocides and the potential for secondary exposure in the general population. To obtain information on the exposure factors on site, an interview survey was conducted for 2 weeks and 10 days using a questionnaire. Toxicology studies were performed to determine the toxicity of each chemical in various biocidal products. The inhalation and dermal exposure algorithms in ConsExpo 4.0, a software developed by the Dutch National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), were used to assess the risk of active substances in biocidal products. The average amounts of disinfectants and pesticides used in indoor environments per unit time were 5948.50 ± 72,434.76 mg and 201.61 ± 305.91 mg, respectively. Ethanol had the highest inhalation hazard quotient (HQ inh ) of 1.48E+02 while sodium dichloroisocyanurate had the lowest value of 1.74E−10. The HQ inh /HQ der ratios for the 10 active substances ranged from 1.51E+00 to 2.73E+05 were greater than 1, indicating that inhalation exposure had a greater effect than dermal exposure. The hazard index (HI) of the 10 active substances, excluding ethanol, was less than 1, indicating the absence of potential health risks. Therefore, to reduce the health risks associated with secondary exposure, disinfection should be performed during periods when individuals are away from the site to be disinfected, such as after regular working hours, and individuals should be encouraged to enter this site the following day instead of after the disinfection exercise. Methods, such as applying an active substance from a biocidal product to a cloth or fabric to carry out the disinfection protocol, should also be considered.

Background Humidifier disinfectants (HDs) were commonly used household chemicals to prevent microbial growth in a humidifier water tank in South Korea. A growing body of evidence has indicated that its airborne exposure can induce severe lung injury. However, there has been low awareness of other health outcomes in HD users. This study aimed to evaluate health conditions appealed by claimants for compensation in relation with an increased exposure to HD. Methods From survey data of personal HD exposure assessment of claimants for compensation in Korea, we included a total of 4,179 subjects [cases in each dataset were defined by nine reported health conditions, i.e., pneumonia, asthma, cardiovascular disease, respiratory disease, otorhinolaryngologic disease, brain disease (including cerebrovascular disease), dermatological disease, lung cancer, and all cancers]. HD exposures was considered as the following exposure criteria: exposure duration, exposure proximity, exposure direction, chemical type, cumulative exposure time, indoor air concentration, and cumulative exposure level. Logistic regression models were used to evaluate the associations between HD exposure and health conditions. Results After adjusting for sociodemographic and health behavioral factors and other chemical exposures (households, environmental, and occupational exposures), an increase in cumulative HD exposure time was significantly associated with risks of all nine diseases (all p -trends < 0.05). An increase in HD exposure duration was associated with asthma, respiratory disease, otorhinolaryngologic disease, dermatological disease, all cancers, and lung cancer ( p -trends < 0.05). Indoor HD concentration was associated with only pneumonia ( p -trend = 0.015). Conclusions Our findings suggest that cumulative exposures to airborne HD might potentially increase the risk of various reported health outcomes.

Background Lung disease caused by exposure to chemical substances such as polyhexamethylene guanidine (PHMG) used in humidifier disinfectants (HDs) has been identified in Korea. Several researchers reported that exposure classification using a questionnaire might not correlate with the clinical severity classes determined through clinical diagnosis. It was asserted that the lack of correlation was due to misclassification in the exposure assessment due to recall bias. We identified the cause of uncertainty to recognize the limitations of differences between exposure assessment and clinical outcomes assumed to be true value. Therefore, it was intended to check the availability of survey using questionnaires and required to reduce misclassification error/bias in exposure assessment. Methods HDs exposure assessment was conducted as a face-to-face interview, using a questionnaire. A total of 5245 applicants participated in the exposure assessment survey. The questionnaire included information on sociodemographic and exposure characteristics such as the period, frequency, and daily usage amount of HDs. Based on clinical diagnosis, a 4 × 4 cross-tabulation of exposure and clinical classification was constructed. When the values of the exposure rating minus the clinical class were ≥ 2 and ≤ − 2, we assigned the cases to the overestimation and underestimation groups, respectively. Results The sex ratio was similar in the overestimation and underestimation groups. In terms of age, in the overestimation group, 90 subjects (24.7%) were under the age of 10, followed by 52 subjects (14.2%) in their 50s. In the underestimation group, 195 subjects (56.7%) were under the age of 10, followed by 80 subjects (23.3%) in their 30s. The overestimation group may have already recovered and responded excessively due to psychological anxiety or to receive compensation. However, relatively high mortality rates and surrogate responses observed among those under 10 years of age may have resulted in inaccurate exposure in the underestimation group. Conclusions HDs exposure assessment using a questionnaire might not correlate with adverse health effects due to recall bias and various other causes such as recovery of injury and psychological anxiety. This study revealed exposure misclassification and characteristics affected by HDs and proposed a questionnaire-based exposure assessment methodology to overcome the limitations of past exposure assessment.

Sensor-based air monitoring instruments (SAMIs) can provide high-resolution air quality data by offering a detailed mapping of areas that air quality monitoring stations (AQMSs) cannot reach. This enhances the precision of estimating PM2.5 concentration levels for areas that have not been directly measured, thereby enabling an accurate assessment of exposure. The study period was from 30 September to 2 October 2019 in the Guro-gu district, Seoul, Republic of Korea. Four models were applied to assess the suitability of the SAMIs and visualize the temporal and spatial distribution of PM2.5. Assuming that the PM2.5 concentrations measured at a SAMI located in the center of the Guro-gu district represent the true values, the PM2.5 concentrations estimated using QGIS spatial interpolation techniques were compared. The SAMIs were used at seven points (S1–S7) according to the distance. Models 3 and 4 accurately estimated the unmeasured points with higher coefficients of determination (R2) than the other models. As the distance from the AQMS increased from S1 to S7, the R2 between the observed and estimated values decreased from 0.89 to 0.29, respectively. The auxiliary installation of SAMIs could resolve regional concentration imbalances, allowing for the accurate estimation of pollutant concentrations and improved risk assessment for the population.

Human exposure to air pollution is a major public health concern. Environmental policymakers have been implementing various strategies to reduce exposure, including the 10th-day-no-driving system. To assess exposure of an entire population of a community in a highly polluted area, pollutant concentrations in microenvironments and population time–activity patterns are required. To date, population exposure to air pollutants has been assessed using air monitoring data from fixed atmospheric monitoring stations, atmospheric dispersion modeling, or spatial interpolation techniques for pollutant concentrations. This is coupled with census data, administrative registers, and data on the patterns of the time-based activities at the individual scale. Recent technologies such as sensors, the Internet of Things (IoT), communications technology, and artificial intelligence enable the accurate evaluation of air pollution exposure for a population in an environmental health context. In this study, the latest trends in published papers on the assessment of population exposure to air pollution were reviewed. Subsequently, this study proposes a methodology that will enable policymakers to develop an environmental health surveillance system that evaluates the distribution of air pollution exposure for a population within a target area and establish countermeasures based on advanced exposure assessment.

(1) Background: Humidifier disinfectant (HD) is a biocidal chemical to keep the water tank inside a humidifier clean. Thousands of Koreans have experienced HD-related lung injuries. Of them, 6.9% were exposed to HD in hospitals. (2) Methods: This study investigated changes of diseases in patients (or caregivers) who experienced HD exposures during hospitalization and also investigated characteristics of hospital exposure using data from all HD-related lung injury enrollment in Korea. (3) Results: Of a total of 162 subjects, 139 subjects were hospitalized for non-lung diseases, and 23 people were hospitalized for lung diseases at the time of hospitalization. During hospital exposure, 99 (71.2%) of those hospitalized with non-lung disease experienced a new-onset of lung disease, and 15 (65.2%) of those hospitalized with lung diseases experienced exacerbation of their existing lung diseases. When we compared their exposure characteristics, those exposed in hospitals (vs. non-hospital, mostly home) were exposed for shorter periods, at closer distances, at higher HD indoor concentrations, constantly all day, and directly in the facial direction. (4) Conclusion: In conclusion, HD exposures in hospital with a high intensity even for a short term were associated with new-onset or exacerbation of lung diseases. Our findings suggest that acute exposures to HD can cause lung diseases.

Background: Particulate matter and urban air pollution affect the human body and can lead to death. Epidemiological studies should consider exposure to pollutants and the diverse responses of individuals, depending on their sensitivity to the pollutants. Methods: In this study, air pollution measurements were obtained hourly at measuring stations operated by national and local governments to increase the reliability of the measured values. A β-ray absorption method was used to analyze the measurements of fine dust and determine the particulate matter content. Results: The air pollution data were log-linear, thereby enabling a comparison of data from different time periods. The comparison was made by focusing on the period of the implementation of Seoul’s fine dust policy. It was observed that the cancer incidence rate decreased after the implementation of the policy. The data on individual characteristics were obtained from a survey of Seoul citizens conducted from 2015 to 2016 using indicators such as quality of life and the social trust of Seoul citizens. Conclusion: The survey on the living environment and residence indicated that 80% of the heads of households were men. Women had a greater dissatisfaction than men with their residential, economic, and social environments. The survey questions on well-being were related to elements of internal and external environments, such as air pollution, noise, and fine dust.

Information on time spent in microenvironments has a critical role for personal exposure to environmental pollutants. Unlike several large-scale studies in Western countries, no comprehensive research on time-activity patterns for exposure assessment has been conducted in Korea. We investigated determinants of residential indoor and transportation times of individuals over 10-years old in the Korean population. The population-based study collected time-activity patterns of 31,634 Koreans for two consecutive days. The residential indoor and transportation times were collected for a weekday and a weekend day. The impact of sociodemographic factors on time-activity was assessed using multiple linear regression models. The residential indoor times were 14.23 h for the weekday and 16.13 h for the weekend and shorter than those in Western countries. The transportation times were 1.75 h for the weekday and 1.68 h for the weekend day. The most significant factors in residential indoor time were employment status, age, monthly income, and gender for the weekday and employment status and gender for the weekend day. The factors in transportation were gender, employment status, and monthly income for the weekday and gender, employment status, age, and marriage status for the weekend day. Determinants of the time-activity pattern need to be taken into account in exposure assessment, epidemiological analyses, and exposure simulations, as well as in the development of preventive strategies. As Korean population activity patterns are substantially different from those in Western countries such as USA, Germany, and UK, this information could be critical for exposure assessment in Korea and other Asian countries.