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Injury to the epithelium is integral to the pathogenesis of many inflammatory lung diseases, and epithelial repair is a critical determinant of clinical outcome. However, the signaling pathways regulating such repair are incompletely understood. We used in vitro and in vivo models to define these pathways. Human neutrophils were induced to transmigrate across monolayers of human lung epithelial cells in the physiological basolateral-to-apical direction. This allowed study of the neutrophil contribution not only to the initial epithelial injury, but also to its repair, as manifested by restoration of transepithelial resistance and reepithelialization of the denuded epithelium. Microarray analysis of epithelial gene expression revealed that neutrophil transmigration activated β-catenin signaling, and this was verified by real-time PCR, nuclear translocation of β-catenin, and TOPFlash reporter activity. Leukocyte elastase, likely via cleavage of E-cadherin, was required for activation of β-catenin signaling in response to neutrophil transmigration. Knockdown of β-catenin using shRNA delayed epithelial repair. In mice treated with intratracheal LPS or keratinocyte chemokine, neutrophil emigration resulted in activation of β-catenin signaling in alveolar type II epithelial cells, as demonstrated by cyclin D1 expression and/or reporter activity in TOPGAL mice. Attenuation of β-catenin signaling by IQ-1 inhibited alveolar type II epithelial cell proliferation in response to neutrophil migration induced by intratracheal keratinocyte chemokine. We conclude that β-catenin signaling is activated in lung epithelial cells during neutrophil transmigration, likely via elastase-mediated cleavage of E-cadherin, and regulates epithelial repair. This pathway represents a potential therapeutic target to accelerate physiological recovery in inflammatory lung diseases.

Abstract The lung is continuously exposed to bacteria and their products, and has developed a complex defense mechanism, including neutrophil recruitment. In mice, keratinocyte cell–derived chemokine and macrophage inflammatory protein-2 are the major chemokines for neutrophil recruitment into the lung. We have previously described a role for C-X-C chemokine (CXCL5) in neutrophil trafficking during lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced lung inflammation in mice. The aims of the present study were to identify the cellular origin of CXCL5 and to determine the signaling cascades that regulate its expression in the lung during LPS-induced inflammation and in isolated LPS-stimulated CXCL5-expressing cells. Our immunohistochemical analysis indicates that alveolar epithelial type II (AEII) cells are the primary source of CXCL5 in the rodent lung. These in vivo observations were confirmed with primary AEII cells. In addition, our data indicate that the Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) signaling cascade involving TLR4, myeloid differentiation factor 88, and Toll–IL-1R domain–containing adapter protein is required to induce CXCL5 expression in the lung. Furthermore, p38 and c-Jun N-terminal kinases are involved in lung CXCL5 expression. Similarly, TLR4, and p38 and c-Jun N-terminal kinases, are associated with LPS-induced CXCL5 expression in AEII cells. These novel observations demonstrate that activation of AEII cells via TLR4-dependent signaling is important for the production of CXCL5 in the lung exposed to LPS.

Abstract Rationale: A growing literature indicates that hydroxy-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase inhibitors (statins) modulate proinflammatory cellular signaling and functions. No studies to date, however, have addressed whether statins modulate pulmonary inflammation triggered by aerogenic stimuli or whether they affect host defense. Objectives: To test whether lovastatin modulates LPS-induced pulmonary inflammation and antibacterial host defense. Methods: To address these questions, and to confirm any effect of statins as dependent on inhibition of hydroxy-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase, we treated C57Bl/6 mice with three oral doses of 10 mg/kg lovastatin (or vehicle) and three intraperitoneal doses of 10 mg/kg mevalonic acid (or saline), and then exposed them to the following: (1) aerosolized LPS, (2) intratracheal keratinocyte-derived chemokine (KC), or (3) intratracheal Klebsiella pneumoniae. Measurements and main results: LPS- and KC-induced airspace neutrophils were reduced by lovastatin, an effect that was blocked by mevalonic acid cotreatment. Lovastatin was also associated with reduced parenchymal myeloperoxidase and microvascular permeability, and altered airspace and serum cytokines after LPS. Native pulmonary clearance of K. pneumoniae was inhibited by lovastatin and extrapulmonary dissemination was enhanced, both reversibly with mevalonic acid. Ex vivo studies of neutrophils isolated from lovastatin-treated mice confirmed inhibitory effects on Rac activation, actin polymerization, chemotaxis, and bacterial killing. Conclusion: Lovastatin attenuates pulmonary inflammation induced by aerosolized LPS and impairs host defense.

Abstract Bacterial pneumonia remains a serious disease. Pattern recognition receptors play an integral role in neutrophil accumulation during pneumonia. Although myeloid differentiation protein (MD)-2 has been recognized as a key molecule for LPS signaling, the role of MD-2 in neutrophil accumulation in the lung during bacterial infection has not been explored. Here, we investigate the role of MD-2 in Escherichia coli LPS–induced lung inflammation and E. coli–induced pneumonia. LPS-induced CD14-independent neutrophil accumulation was abolished in CD14/MD-2−/− mice. MD-2−/− mice challenged with LPS displayed attenuated neutrophil influx, NF-κB activation, cytokine/chemokine expression, and lung histopathology. MD-2−/− mice transplanted with MD-2+/+ bone marrow demonstrated decreased neutrophil influx and cytokine/chemokine expression in the lungs when challenged by LPS. MD-2−/− mice infected with E. coli demonstrated reduced neutrophil influx and cytokine/chemokine expression in the lungs, whereas heat-killed E. coli did not induce either neutrophil accumulation or cytokine/chemokine expression in MD-2−/− mice infected with E. coli. Furthermore, MD-2−/− mice displayed increased bacterial burden in the lungs and enhanced bacterial dissemination. Toll-like receptor (TLR)-5−/− mice infected with E. coli exhibited attenuated neutrophil accumulation, whereas MD-2/TLR5−/− mice inoculated with E. coli showed further attenuated neutrophil influx and impaired bacterial clearance. Taken together, these new findings demonstrate: (1) the important role of MD-2 in the CD14-independent LPS-mediated cascade of neutrophil influx; (2) the relative importance of bone marrow– and non–bone marrow cell–derived MD-2 in LPS-induced inflammation; and (3) the essential role of MD-2–dependent and MD-2–independent (TLR5) signaling in E. coli–induced neutrophil accumulation and pulmonary host defense.

Abstract Extracellular superoxide dismutase (EC-SOD) is an abundant antioxidant in the lung and vascular walls. Previous studies have shown that EC-SOD attenuates lung injury in a diverse variety of lung injury models. In this study, we examined the role of EC-SOD in mediating lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced lung inflammation. We found that LPS-induced neutrophilic lung inflammation was exaggerated in EC-SOD–deficient mice and diminished in mice that overexpressed EC-SOD specifically in the lung. Similar patterns were seen for bronchoalveolar lavage cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor–α, keratinocyte-derived chemokines, and macrophage inflammatory protein-2 as well as expression of lung intercellular adhesion molecule–1, vascular cell adhesion molecule–1, endothelial cell selectin, and platelet selectin. In a macrophage cell line, EC-SOD inhibited LPS-induced macrophage cytokine release, but did not alter expression of intercellular adhesion molecules in endothelial cells. These results suggest that EC-SOD plays an important role in attenuating the inflammatory response in the lung most likely by decreasing release of proinflammatory cytokines from phagocytes.

Abstract The influx of neutrophils into the lung is a sentinel event in LPS-induced acute lung inflammation. Previous studies have shown that systemic inhibition of p38 decreases LPS-induced neutrophil influx into the alveolar space but has no effect on pulmonary parenchymal neutrophil accumulation or on microvascular leak, indicating other pathways are important in LPS-induced acute lung inflammation. This study examined the role of c-Jun N-terminal kinase in LPS-induced acute lung inflammation. Systemic inhibition of c-Jun N-terminal kinase, with the specific c-Jun N-terminal kinase inhibitor SP600125, decreased the LPS-induced accumulation of neutrophils into the lung parenchyma and alveolar space. In addition, increases in microvascular leak after LPS exposure were diminished by c-Jun N-terminal kinase inhibition. To determine mechanisms by which systemic c-Jun N-terminal kinase inhibition decreased pulmonary neutrophil influx, LPS and tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α–)–induced neutrophil actin assembly and retention were examined. Neutrophil actin assembly was decreased after LPS and TNF-α stimulation with SP600125 pretreatment, as well as LPS-induced neutrophil retention. Finally, c-Jun N-terminal kinase inhibition decreased Cdc42 activation after LPS or TNF-α stimulation, thereby providing one mechanism by which c-Jun N-terminal kinase inhibition decreased actin assembly, and thereby pulmonary neutrophil accumulation.