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Complex coumarins (CCs) represent characteristic metabolites found in Apiaceae plants, possessing significant medical value. Their essential functional role is likely as protectants against pathogens and regulators responding to environmental stimuli. Utilizing genomes and transcriptomes from 34 Apiaceae plants, including our recently sequenced Peucedanum praeruptorum , we conduct comprehensive phylogenetic analyses to reconstruct the detailed evolutionary process of the CC biosynthetic pathway in Apiaceae. Our results show that three key enzymes – p -coumaroyl CoA 2’-hydroxylase (C2’H), C-prenyltransferase (C-PT), and cyclase – originated successively at different evolutionary nodes within Apiaceae through various means of gene duplications: ectopic and tandem duplications. Neofunctionalization endows these enzymes with novel functions necessary for CC biosynthesis, thus completing the pathway. Candidate genes are cloned for heterologous expression and subjected to in vitro enzymatic assays to test our hypothesis regarding the origins of the key enzymes, and the results precisely validate our evolutionary inferences. Among the three enzymes, C-PTs are likely the primary determinant of the structural diversity of CCs (linear/angular), due to divergent activities evolved to target different positions (C-6 or C-8) of umbelliferone. A key amino acid variation (Ala161/Thr161) is identified and proven to play a crucial role in the alteration of enzymatic activity, possibly resulting in distinct binding forms between enzymes and substrates, thereby leading to different products. In conclusion, this study provides a detailed trajectory for the establishment and evolution of the CC biosynthetic pathway in Apiaceae. It explains why only a portion, not all, of Apiaceae plants can produce CCs and reveals the mechanisms of CC structural diversity among different Apiaceae plants. This study explores the origin and evolution of complex coumarin (CC) biosynthetic pathway in Apiaceae. The results explain why CCs are only detected in limited Apiaceae species, and clarify the mechanism underlying the linear and angular configurations of Apiaceae CCs.

Furochromones are specific bioactive secondary metabolites of many Apiaceae plants. Their biosynthesis remains largely unexplored. In this work, we dissect the complete biosynthetic pathway of major furochromones in the medicinal plant Saposhnikovia divaricata by characterizing prenyltransferase, peucenin cyclase, methyltransferase, hydroxylase, and glycosyltransferases. De novo biosynthesis of prim- O -glucosylcimifugin and 5- O -methylvisamminoside is realized in Nicotiana benthamiana leaves. Through comparative genomic and transcriptomic analyses, we further find that proximal duplication and high expression of a pentaketide chromone synthase gene SdPCS , together with the presence of a lineage-specific peucenin cyclase gene SdPC , lead to the predominant accumulation of furochromones in the roots of S. divaricata among surveyed Apiaceae plants. This study paves the way for metabolic engineering production of furochromones, and sheds light into evolutionary mechanisms of furochromone biosynthesis among Apiaceae plants. The complete biosynthetic pathway of Prim- O -Glucosylcimifugin and 5- O -Methylvisamminoside in Saposhnikovia divaricata is resolved and their de novo biosynthesis is reconstructed in Nicotiana benthamiana leaves. The evolutionary mechanisms of furochromone biosynthesis among Apiaceae plants is further analyzed.

Background Peucedanum praeruptorum Dunn is a perennial and one-time flowering medical plant whose early bolting significantly compromises both yield and quality. Previous research has shown that light conditions play a crucial role in regulating this early bolting phenomenon. In an attempt to elucidate the regulatory mechanism underlying light-mediated bolting in P. praeruptorum , we conducted shading experiments to systematically analyze the dynamic phenotypic variations, phytochemical composition changes, and transcriptomic profiles between early bolting and non-bolting plants under altered light conditions. Results Results showed that low light effectively inhibited the occurrence of early bolting, but it also significantly suppressed the growth of the plant. Additionally, shading significantly affected the accumulation of active components, the contents of bergapten, praeruptorin A, and praeruptorin E showed a positive correlation with light intensity, while praeruptorin B exhibited an inverse correlation. The 70% shading treatment was identified as the optimal condition, effectively mitigating early bolting while maintaining acceptable levels of plant growth and medicinal quality for P. praeruptorum cultivation. Transcriptome analysis of 96 samples revealed a progressive reduction in both total gene expression and the number of differentially expressed genes as shading intensity increased. Among these, we identified 757 differentially expressed genes significantly associated with early bolting regulation. Notably, 23 candidate genes, including PHYA , FT , bZIP , NAC , ABF , ERF1 , At1g72540 , CYCD3 , FKBP16 , DELLA , JAZ , MYC2 , SNRK2 , and AUX/IAA , were identified as potential regulators of early bolting in response to shading condition. In addition, 11 candidate genes regulating coumarin components were identified, including 4CL , CCR , CSE , CCoaOMT , and the change trends of their expression profiles were consistent with the contents of coumarin components. Conclusion These findings provide the first empirical evidence for the mechanisms underlying early bolting and quality formation in P. praeruptorum , and offer valuable insights into producing high-quality P. praeruptorum .

(S)-(+)-linalool is a non-cyclic oxygenated monoterpene which is very useful and widely used in the cosmetic industries, especially in the production of perfume and cologne. Thus, due to the high commercial value and high demand, the search for new plant sources rich in (S)-(+)-linalool in agricultural systems to develop the business of this compound is of great interest. This investigation focused on the diversity of phenotypic yield and phytochemical traits in Grammosciadium platycarpum populations collected from fourteen geographical regions in Iran. The goal was to identify the essential compounds and select the best populations for domestication, cultivation, and future breeding programs. The highest coefficient of variation was observed in the umbrellas per plant, plant length, internode length, leaf width, number of lateral branches, and essential oil yield (EOY). The shoot dry weight ranged from 27.15 to 41.56 (g/plant) and the fruit dry weight from 9.23 to 20.80 (g/plant) among different populations, which was observed in the QOR population. The fruit of the plant was employed to extract and determine the content plus constituents of the essential oil. The essential oil content (EOC) exhibited a extend from 0.81 to 1.63%. MAQ population indicated the maximum and OSH population revealed the minimum EOC. The highest EOY (0.228 g/plant) was observed in the MAQ population and the lowest (0.083 g/plant) was related to the MAR population. Based on GC-MS and GC analysis, 91.97 to 99.93% of the essential compounds of different populations of G. platycarpum were identified. According to the results, linalool (65.90-81.62%) and limonene (9.73–15.34%) were the main ingredients of the essential oil profile. Rutin, ferulic acid, and chlorogenic acid were detected as the major phenolic compounds using HPLC. The high diversity observed among different populations of G. platycarpum provides good potential for selecting the best populations and using them in domestication projects, cultivation, and breeding programs.

Key messageSalicylic acid and iron-oxide nanoparticles alleviated salt toxicity and improved plant growth by stimulating the activities of H+-ATPase and H+-PPase and preventing nutrient imbalance.Two factorial experiments were undertaken in a greenhouse during 2018 and 2019, to evaluate the impacts of SA (1 mM) and nano-Fe2O3 (3 mM) sprays at 7 leaves and flowering stages on vacuolar H+-pumps, growth and essential oil of salt-subjected (0, 4, 8 and 12 dS m−1 NaCl) ajowan plants. Measurements of plant traits were started at about 12 days after the last foliar spray and continued up to maturity. The H+-ATPase and H+-PPase activities and root ATP content were enhanced under low salinity, but higher salinities reduced these parameters. Rising salinity enhanced Na uptake and translocation, endogenous SA and DPPH activity, while reduced K+/Na+ ratio and nutrients uptake, leading to a reduction in plant biomass. Treatment with SA, nano-Fe2O3 and their combination improved H+-pumps activities and ATP content in roots and leaves. The SA-related treatments caused the highest activities of H+-pumps in roots, but Fe-related treatments resulted in the highest activities of these pumps in leaves. Increasing H+-pumps activities reduced sodium uptake and translocation and enhanced nutrients uptake. Foliar treatments, especially SA + nano-Fe2O3 augmented endogenous SA, DPPH activity, and plant growth in salt-stressed plants. Essential oil contents of vegetative and inflorescence organs under severe salinity and seeds under moderate and severe salinities were enhanced. Maximum essential oil was obtained from seeds of SA + nano-Fe2O3-treated plants, which was strongly correlated with endogenous SA and DPPH. Nevertheless, the SA + nano-Fe2O3 was the best treatment for diminishing salt toxicity and improving ajowan plant growth and essential oil production.

Selecting the optimal light in Controlled Environment Agriculture (CEA) is crucial for crop yield and quality. However, the optimal light conditions can only be identified through extensive testing. This study proposes a methodology for selecting the optimizing light conditions and applies it to a medicinal herb Glehnia littoralis . Using a mixture design and response surface methodology with red (R), green (G), and blue (B) based LEDs, the optimal light spectrum was identified as R:B = 7:5 based on growth parameters (shoot fresh weight, number of leaves, leaf area, and shoot area). Verification experiments showed that R:B = 7:5 enhanced growth through R and B light synergy, while the high proportion of blue light stimulated secondary metabolism, leading to increased biomass and accumulation of medicinally valuable compounds–imperatorin, bergamottin, and coumarin. These findings highlight the potential of using tailored artificial light spectra in CEA to overcome cultivation challenges and optimize yield and quality, contributing to the development of a stable and sustainable scalable production system for high value medicinal plants.

Grammosciadium platycarpum (GP), a perennial member of the Apiaceae, is a valuable source of linalool-rich essential oil with pharmaceutical and industrial significance. Despite this, Iranian populations remain poorly studied, limiting conservation and genetic utilization efforts. This study aimed to comprehensively evaluate fourteen Iranian G. platycarpum populations cultivated under uniform environmental conditions, assessing morphological traits, essential oil composition, and phytochemical diversity. Seeds were collected and grown in a randomized block design, enabling precise comparison of traits. Considerable variability was detected, with the largest coefficients of variation observed for umbrellas per plant, leaf width, fruit dry weight (FDW), essential oil yield (EOY), chlorogenic acid content, and leaf length. Shoot dry weight (SDW) ranged from 31.0 to 89.88 g per plant, while fruit biomass varied from 6.52 to 28.0 g, with GP2 representing the extremes. Essential oil content (EOC) ranged between 0.74 and 1.24%, with GP5 displaying the maximum and GP12 the minimum values. GP5 also achieved the highest EOY (0.94 g per plant), whereas GP10 exhibited the lowest (0.23 g). GC-FID and GC-MS analyses identified 97.55–99.93% of essential oil constituents, predominantly linalool (71.34–82.31%) and limonene (9.32–13.14%). Fruit extracts revealed ferulic acid, chlorogenic acid, and rutin as major phenolics, varying significantly among populations. Genetic parameters indicated high heritability and genetic advance for traits such as umbrellas per plant, leaf width, fruit mass, and EOY, suggesting additive gene action. Path coefficient analysis demonstrated SDW, EOC, and ferulic acid as direct determinants of oil yield, whereas linalool concentration was closely related to phenolic content, chlorogenic acid, and plant height. Overall, the results highlight substantial genetic and biochemical diversity in G. platycarpum , offering valuable insights for targeted breeding, germplasm conservation, and sustainable domestication of high-linalool cultivars.

Methoxylated coumarins represent a large proportion of officinal value coumarins while only one enzyme specific to bergaptol O-methylation (BMT) has been identified to date. The multiple types of methoxylated coumarins indicate that at least one unknown enzyme participates in the O-methylation of other hydroxylated coumarins and remains to be identified. Combined transcriptome and metabonomics analysis revealed that an enzyme similar to caffeic acid O-methyltransferase (COMT-S, S is short for similar) was involved in catalyzing all the hydroxylated coumarins in Peucedanum praeruptorum. However, the precise molecular mechanism of its substrate heterozygosis remains unsolved. Pursuing this question, we determined the crystal structure of COMT-S to clarify its substrate preference. The result revealed that Asn132, Asp271, and Asn325 govern the substrate heterozygosis of COMT-S. A single mutation, such as N132A, determines the catalytic selectivity of hydroxyl groups in esculetin and also causes production differences in bergapten. Evolution-based analysis indicated that BMT was only recently derived as a paralogue of caffeic acid O-methyltransferase (COMT) via gene duplication, occurring before the Apiaceae family divergence between 37 and 100 mya. The present study identified the previously unknown O-methylation steps in coumarin biosynthesis. The crystallographic and mutational studies provided a deeper understanding of the substrate preference, which can be used for producing specific O-methylation coumarins. Moreover, the evolutionary relationship between BMT and COMT-S was clarified to facilitate understanding of evolutionary events in the Apiaceae family.

Kelussia odoratissima Mozaff (celery) is a valuable endemic spice and aromatic plant of the Apiaceae family, rich in secondary metabolites. This study aimed to optimize in vitro regeneration methods and LEDs to enhance the phenolic compounds and chemical composition of Kelussia . Various combinations and concentrations of plant growth regulators (PGRs) were tested using three types of explants: cotyledons, hypocotyls, and zygotic embryos. In the second part of the study, five light treatments were tested: viz. red, blue, red‒blue, white, and control. Secondary volatile oil compounds were analyzed using solid‒phase microextraction (SPME) arrow to assess changes under each light condition. HPLC analysis identified the principal phenolic and flavonoid compounds in the different explants, such as caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, and rutin. In particular, the highest concentration of phenolic compounds (caffeic acid: 43.09 µg/g) was detected in zygotic embryo explants treated with 2–4-D at 0.5 mg/L and BAP at 0.25 mg/L. The SPME analysis revealed that ( E )-farnesene (32.09%), ( Z )-ligustilide (19.4%), and pentylbenzene (14.5%) were the most abundant components. Additionally, the highest ( Z )-ligustilide content was obtained in zygotic embryos exposed to red light. Finally, the in vitro culture of zygotic embryos under red LEDs offers an effective method for the in vitro production of this endangered spice plant, facilitating the production of secondary metabolites, such as phenolic compounds.

The dried rhizome of Notopterygium incisum (NI) from the Umbelliferae family, genuinely produced in Sichuan, China, is a classic traditional Chinese medicinal herb for treating wind-dampness arthralgia. Due to scarce natural resources, wild NI is gradually being replaced by cultivated types. However, knowledge is limited regarding the differences in chemical composition and pharmacological effects between wild and cultivated NI and between Sichuan-grown and other-region-grown NI. In this study, a plant metabolomics strategy, based on GC–MS and UHPLC-Orbitrap MS, was employed to compare metabolic profiles between wild and cultivated NI and between cultivated NI from Sichuan and cultivated NI from Gansu and Qinghai. In total, 195 metabolites were identified, and the biosynthetic pathways of coumarins and phenolic acids, which were the most abundant secondary metabolites in NI, were summarized. Additionally, seven key metabolic intermediates were uncovered, revealing the reasons for the differences in metabolic profiles between wild and cultivated NI. The anti-inflammatory effect of wild and cultivated NI was verified by inflammatory gene expression and neutrophil count using a zebrafish yolk sac inflammation model. Overall, this study presents information on the types and synthesis of pharmacodynamic substances in NI and provides a basis for its cultivation and applications.