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Crotalaria longirostrata (chipilin) leaves contain phenolic compounds with antioxidant activity. These phenolic compounds, however, could easily degrade after extraction. Microencapsulation is a possible solution for avoiding this degradation. Frequently, microencapsulation is carried out using conventional encapsulating agents. The aim of this work was to evaluate the effect of several non-conventional encapsulating agents on microencapsulation by spray drying of phenolic compounds from chipilin, stability and release of phenolic compounds were also studied. Maltodextrin (MD), gum Arabic (GA), soy protein (SP), cocoa shell pectin (CSP), and protein (PC), as well as the gum (GC) of Cajanus cajan seeds were used. Different blends of these matrixes containing phenolic compounds from chipilin leaves were spray dried at 120 °C. After drying, the yield and microencapsulation efficiency were determined. All results were analyzed by an ANOVA test (p < 0.05). The release kinetics of phenolic compounds were modeled using zero, first-order, Higuchi and Korsmeyer-Peppas models. The R2 was calculated for each model. The blends of encapsulating agents allowed the formation of an efficient polymer matrix with yields between 46 and 64% and microencapsulation efficiency between 65 and 92%. Results show that maltodextrin with soy protein allowed the highest (92%) microencapsulation efficiency, although maltodextrin and cocoa shell pectin were more effective protective agents, showing greater stability. The Korsmeyer-Peppas model was the best in predicting the phenolic compounds release with R2 values higher than 98%. The stability time for microcapsules with MD–CSP was 8.88 years and 1.43 years at 4 °C and 30 °C, respectively.

Pigeon pea ( Cajanus cajan L. Millsp. ) is a legume crop resilient to climate change due to its tolerance to drought. It is grown by millions of resource-poor farmers in semiarid and tropical subregions of Asia and Africa and is a major contributor to their nutritional food security. Pigeon pea is the sixth most important legume in the world, with India contributing more than 70% of the total production and harbouring a wide variety of cultivars. Nevertheless, the low yield of pigeon pea grown under dry land conditions and its yield instability need to be improved. This may be done by enhancing crop nodulation and, hence, biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) by supplying effective symbiotic rhizobia through the application of “elite” inoculants. Therefore, the main aim in this study was the isolation and genomic analysis of effective rhizobial strains potentially adapted to drought conditions. Accordingly, pigeon pea endosymbionts were isolated from different soil types in Southern, Central, and Northern India. After functional characterisation of the isolated strains in terms of their ability to nodulate and promote the growth of pigeon pea, 19 were selected for full genome sequencing, along with eight commercial inoculant strains obtained from the ICRISAT culture collection. The phylogenomic analysis [Average nucleotide identity MUMmer (ANIm)] revealed that the pigeon pea endosymbionts were members of the genera Bradyrhizobium and Ensifer . Based on nodC phylogeny and nod cluster synteny, Bradyrhizobium yuanmingense was revealed as the most common endosymbiont, harbouring nod genes similar to those of Bradyrhizobium cajani and Bradyrhizobium zhanjiangense . This symbiont type (e.g., strain BRP05 from Madhya Pradesh) also outperformed all other strains tested on pigeon pea, with the notable exception of an Ensifer alkalisoli strain from North India (NBAIM29). The results provide the basis for the development of pigeon pea inoculants to increase the yield of this legume through the use of effective nitrogen-fixing rhizobia, tailored for the different agroclimatic regions of India.

In this study, we evaluate the effects of intercropping pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.) with tropical pastures for feeding Nellore cattle and compared animal performance and enteric CH4 emissions with other pasture-based systems during the dry and rainy seasons of 2021. Thirty-six Nellore steers (with a body weight of 221 ± 7 kg and an age of 15–16 months) were randomly distributed in three treatments with three replicates (in paddocks of 1.5 hectares each): (1) a degraded pasture of Urochloa spp. (DEG); (2) a recovered and fertilized pasture of Urochloa spp. (REC); and (3) pigeon pea intercropped with Urochloa spp. (MIX). Enteric CH4 emissions were estimated using the sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) tracer gas technique, and dry matter intake (DMI) was determined using internal (iNDF) and external (TiO2) markers. Forages were collected by hand plucking after observations of ingestive behavior, and feces was collected after voluntary defecation. The proportion of grass and legume intake was estimated by C stable isotopes, and the forage nutritional quality was determined, while animal performance was monitored monthly, and the stocking rate was adjusted by the “put and take” technique. The results indicated that intercropping pigeon pea with tropical grasses is an interesting strategy for sustainable livestock production based on pastures. The MIX treatment was able to meet the nutritional requirements of the animals, which presented higher performance. In addition, there was a reduction in CH4 emissions up to 70% when expressed per average daily weight gain in comparison to the DEG treatment.

Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp., also known as pigeon pea, has roots that have exhibited much pharmacological potential. The present study was conducted to assess the safe dose of the ethanolic extract of C. cajan roots (EECR95) and to analyze the main soy isoflavones contents. In vitro, we investigated the mutagenicity and cytotoxic effect of EECR95 on Salmonella typhimurium-TA98 and TA100 (by Ames tests) and RAW 264.7, L-929, and HGF-1 cell lines (by MTT tests) for 24 h of incubation. We found no mutagenic or cytotoxic effects of EECR95. After administration of 0.2 or 1.0 g/kg bw of EECR95 to both male and female Wistar rats for 90 days, there were no significant adverse effects on the behaviors (body weight, water intake, and food intake), organ/tissue weights, or immunohistochemical staining, and the urine and hematological examinations of the rats were within normal ranges. EECR95 potentially decreases renal function markers in serum (serum uric acid, BUN, CRE, and GLU) or liver function markers (cholesterol, triglyceride, and glutamic-pyruvate-transaminase (GPT)). We also found that EECR95 contained five soy isoflavones (genistein, biochanin A, daidzein, genistin, and cajanol), which may be related to its hepatorenal protection. Based on the high dose (1.0 g/kg bw) of EECR95, a safe daily intake of EECR95 for human adults is estimated to be 972 mg/60 kg person/day.

Zinc (Zn) deficiency prevails in different soils and crops of the world. Soil Zn deficiency adversely affects growth, yield and micronutrients (Zn, copper (Cu), iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn)) concentration in different crops including pigeonpea ( Cajanus cajan L. Millsp.), a protein rich legume crop grown consumed in different parts of the world. Therefore, we carried out a 2-years field experiment on a Zn-deficient Vertisol with 20 different pigeonpea genotypes and 3 levels of Zn treatments in a split-plot design with 3 replications, to study the effect of Zn application on yield, micronutrients concentration and uptake by pigeonpea genotypes. The 3 levels of Zn treatments were no Zn (no Zn fertilizer was applied), soil Zn (20 kg Zn ha −1 ) and soil + foliar Zn. Compared to no Zn application, soil and soil + foliar application of Zn enhanced mean grain yield by 15 and 24%, stover yield by 13 and 29% and total biomass yield of pigeonpea genotypes by 13 and 29%, respectively. Soil + foliar application of Zn significantly increased mean grain Zn concentration by 33% compared to no Zn application. Soil and soil + foliar Zn application led to reduction in mean grain Cu concentration by 9 and 10%, respectively, and did not significantly increase or decrease grain Fe and Mn concentration. Soil and soil + foliar application of Zn significantly increased mean grain Zn, Fe and Mn uptake by pigeonpea genotypes compared to no Zn application. Soil + foliar application of Zn had significantly higher mean grain Zn, Fe and Mn uptake compared to soil Zn application. The grain, stover and total biomass yield, micronutrients concentration in grain and stover and micronutrients uptake by the genotypes were different under various treatments. The genotypes ICPL 87119, BDN 2, JKM 7, Virsa Arhar 1, DT 23 and AAUT 2007–10 under soil application of Zn and ICPL 87119, BDN 2, JKM 7 and Virsa Arhar 1 under soil + foliar application of Zn were found promising for cultivation to obtain higher grain yield and micronutrients uptake.

Being regulators of growth, both spermidine (Spd) and melatonin (Mel) are involved actively in the modulation of abiotic stress responses of plants. Hence, the present study was aimed to scrutinize the possible involvements of Spd and Mel in alleviation of fluoride ion (F−)-induced injuries in Cajanus cajan L. Seeds of C. cajan L. were exposed to 1) control, 2) F−, 3) Spd, 4) Spd + F−, 5) Mel and 6) Mel + F− for five days. The results unveiled that F− treatment caused inhibited growth (radicle length and dry mass accumulation), protein content, genomic template stability, membrane stability index, and free radical scavenging capacity, but enhanced the levels of cell death, active oxygen species (AOS), malondialdehyde, lipase, protein carbonylation, and DNA polymorphism. Moreover, F− toxicity elevated the concentrations of endogenous proline, ascorbic acid, and glutathione, and altered the isoenzyme profiles and gene expressions of stress responsive enzymes (superoxide dismutase, catalase, ascorbate peroxidase, and glutathione-S-transferase). In contrast, exogenous supplementation of Spd and Mel alleviated the deleterious effects of F−, consequently improved growth, free radical scavenging capacity, and accumulations of protein, proline, ascorbic acid, and glutathione in C. cajan L. Additionally, application of Spd or Mel also improved the isoenzyme profiles and gene expressions of stress responsive enzymes, and genomic template stability, thereby reduced cell death, AOS, lipid peroxidation, lipase activity, and DNA polymorphism in stressed tissues. The present study concludes that Spd and Mel, particularly Mel, alleviated the adverse impacts of F− by improving antioxidant machinery and genomic template stability.

Fertilization management of pigeon peas can increase soil quality and the N utilization by plants. Therefore, we evaluated the biological activity of soil cultivated with pigeon peas (Cajanus cajan (L) Millsp.) under different fertilization treatments. A randomized block design was used with three replicates and a 3×5 factorial arrangement (genotype×fertilization and inoculation management). At full flowering stage, the plants were collected and shoot dry matter was evaluated. Soil was sampled at 0-20 cm for various analysis viz. nodulation assessment; soil organic carbon; total nitrogen; carbon and nitrogen from microbial biomass; C/N ratio; β-glucosidase and urease enzymatic activity. Data were subjected to analysis of variance and Tukey’s test (P ≤ 0.05). A Pearson correlation matrix was constructed, and the similarity between treatments was evaluated using the Mahalanobis distance and grouping was done using the unweighted pair group method with arithmetic average (UPGMA). Both the experimental genotypes (BRS03 and BRS04) showed similar nodulation and shoot dry matter pattern with respect to fertilizer treatments. Furthermore, the microbial inoculation promoted a higher shoot dry matter content in all the genotypes. The application of mineral N and inoculation increased the total N content in the soil, favoring the mineralization of this nutrient. During the testing phase, the genotypes exhibited an increase in microbial carbon and microbial quotient levels, indicating an improvement in soil quality. The combination of fertilization and inoculation increased the enzymatic activity of β-glucosidase and urease. The correlation matrix showed a strong association between N total and C/N ratio. The formation of groups by UPGMA was observed as a function of inoculation, demonstrating its effect on soil biological variables. RESUMO: O manejo da adubação do feijão-guandu pode melhorar a qualidade do solo e o aproveitamento do N pelas plantas. Assim, objetivou-se avaliar a atividade biológica do solo cultivado com feijão guandu (Cajanus cajan (L) Millsp.) com diferentes manejos de adubação. Empregou-se o delineamento em blocos casualizados, com três repetições e arranjo fatorial 3x5 (genótipos x fertilização e manejo de inoculação). Na fase de florescimento pleno procedeu-se a coleta da planta, para determinação da massa seca da parte aérea e do solo em 0-20 cm, para avaliações da nodulação; carbono orgânico total; nitrogênio total; carbono e nitrogênio da biomassa microbiana; relação C/N; atividade enzimática de β-glucosidase e urease. Os dados foram submetidos à análise de variância e ao teste Tukey (P ≤ 0,05). Foi construída uma matriz de correlações de Pearson, a similaridade entre os tratamentos foi avaliada pela distância de Mahalanobis e o agrupamento pelo método de pares não ponderados com média aritmética (UPGMA). Ambos genótipos experimentais (BRS03 e BRS04) apresentaram comportamento semelhante para nodulação e padrão de matéria seca da parte aérea semelhantes em relação aos tratamentos com adubação. A aplicação de N mineral e inoculação incrementou o N total do solo, favorecendo a mineralização deste nutriente. Durante as fases de testes, os genótipos obtiveram elevação nos teores de carbono microbiano e quociente microbiano, indicando melhoria da qualidade do solo. A combinação de adubação e inoculação aumentou a atividade das enzimas β-glicosidase e urease. A matiz de correlação demonstrou elevada associação entre N total e relação C/N. A formação dos grupos pelo UPGMA foi obtida em função da inoculação, evidenciando seu efeito sobre as variáveis biológicas do solo.

Key messageIn this study, we have identified 120 UGT genes in pigeonpea and performed a bioinformatics analysis, which showed their tissue-specific and stress-induced expression patterns.Family 1 UDP-glycosyltransferases (UGTs; EC 2.4.1.x) are enzymes that glycosylate aglycones into glycoside-associated compounds. They play an important role in plant resistance to abiotic stresses by regulating the synthesis of plant hormones and secondary metabolites. However, in pigeonpea, the UGT family has not yet been reported. Here, 120 CcUGT genes were identified from the pigeonpea genome, which all contained the plant secondary product glycosyltransferase motif (PSPG). According to the phylogenetic relationship, 120 CcUGTs can be classified into 11 major groups. The CcUGTs are distributed on 10 chromosomes except chromosome 5. Homology modeling of CcUGT proteins and conserved motif search were used to predict the structure of 120 UGTs. Most protein structures can be predicted with high accuracy. After that, 11 representative CcUGT genes were selected for further analysis. We measured their specific expression in different tissues and the changes in transcription levels after stress. The results show that 11 genes are specific in different tissues and the expression of genes in leaves is higher than that of other tissues. In roots, CcUGT69 genes were highly expressed in salt and osmotic stresses, and CcUGT110 was up-regulated in low temperature injury. In leaves, most of the genes were up-regulated after stress treatment, and only CcUGT6, 37, 56 had little change in transcription levels. Overall, this study systematically analyses the UGT gene family in pigeonpea for the first time and provides some useful clues for further functional studies of UGT genes.

Pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan) is one of the important grain legume crops cultivated in the semi-arid tropics, playing a crucial role in the economic well-being of subsistence farmers. India is the major producer of pigeonpea, accounting for over 75% of the world’s production. Sterility mosaic disease (SMD), caused by Pigeonpea sterility mosaic virus (PPSMV) and transmitted by the eriophyid mite (Aceria cajani), is a major constraint to pigeonpea cultivation in the Indian subcontinent, leading to potential yield losses of up to 100%. The recent characterization of another Emaravirus associated with SMD has further complicated the etiology of this challenging viral disease. This review focuses on critical areas, including the current status of the disease, transmission and host-range, rapid phenotyping techniques, as well as available disease management strategies. The review concludes with insights into the future prospects, offering an overview and direction for further research and management strategies.

This study investigated the effects of salicylic acid (SA) on the germination and early seedling growth of Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan L., Fabaceae). Pigeon pea were sown in soils containing 5 mg/l, 10 mg/l, 20 mg/l, 30 mg/l and 50 mg/l SA and a control (0 mg/l). The treatment was applied to the plant for 6 weeks from the day of planting. It was observed that the leaflet area increased more in plants that received SA treatment in low concentration (0 mg/l, 5 mg/l, 10 mg/l and 20 mg/l) than in those with higher concentration (30 mg/l and 50 mg/l). The same result was obtained in the total chlorophyll content of the leaves and in average height of the plant (p<0.05). It was also observed that the number of leaves formed were more in plant that had little SA concentration. However, it was also discovered that at concentration below 10 mg/l, the growth promoting effect of SA declined. The study presents supporting evidence that optimum SA concentration required for maximum seed germination and early seedling growth in C. cajan is 20 mg/l. This finding will act as guide in the application of SA treatment in growing C. cajan.