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Canine vector-borne diseases (CVBDs) are highly prevalent in tropical and subtropical countries, mainly due to favorable climate conditions and reduced adoption of preventive measures. This study aimed to provide a comprehensive overview on the prevalence of CVBDs in Iran and Pakistan where limited data are available. Blood samples were collected from 403 dogs from six provinces in Iran and Pakistan to assess the presence of pathogen DNA (i.e., Anaplasma spp., Coxiella burnetii, Ehrlichia spp., Rickettsia spp., Babesia spp., Hepatozoon spp., filarioids, and Leishmania spp.). Sera were also screened by an immunofluorescence antibody test for the detection of antibodies against Leishmania infantum. In total, 46.9% of dogs scored positive to Hepatozoon canis being the most frequently detected (41.4%), followed by Anaplasma platys (6.4%), Ehrlichia canis (3.4%), Rickettsia spp. (2.2%), Babesia vogeli (1.0%), and L. infantum (0.3%). A seroprevalence of 9.6% to anti-L. infantum IgG was also recorded. Data reported herein demonstrate that dogs from Iran and Pakistan are at a high risk of CVBDs, particularly of canine hepatozoonosis. Effective control strategies are advocated for minimizing the risk of infection in animals and humans, also in consideration of the zoonotic potential of some pathogens detected.

Background Dogs play an important role as reservoirs of many zoonotic vector-borne pathogens worldwide, yet reports of canine vector-borne diseases (CVBDs) in Egypt are scarce. Methods Serum samples were collected from pet dogs ( n  = 500) of the three most common breeds (German Shepherd, Rottweiler and Pit Bull) in five Governates of Cairo ( n  = 230), Giza ( n  = 110), Al-Qalyubia ( n  = 60), Al-Gharbia ( n  = 60) and Kafr El-Sheikh ( n  = 40) with a hot desert climate. The presence of antibodies to Anaplasma spp. ( A. phagocytophilum , A. platys ), Ehrlichia spp. ( E. canis , E. chaffeensis , E. ewingii ), Borrelia burgdorferi ( s.l. ) and Dirofilaria immitis were assessed using IDEXX SNAP ® 4Dx ® ELISA tests. For each pathogen, risk factors (i.e. geographical area, keeping condition, sex, age, breed, tick infestation, weekly sanitation of dog enclosures and application of ectoparasiticides) were evaluated by logistic regression approach. Results In total, 18.2% ( n  = 91, 95% CI 15.1–21.8) of dogs scored seropositive for at least one pathogen, the most frequent being Ehrlichia spp. ( n  = 56; 11.2%; 95% CI 8.7–14.3) followed by Anaplasma spp. ( n  = 33; 6.6%, 95% CI 4.7–9.1), Borrelia burgdorferi ( s.l. ) ( n  = 9; 1.8%, 95% CI 0.9–3.4) and D. immitis ( n  = 7; 1.4%, 95% CI 0.9–2.9). In the tested population, 15.4% (95% CI 12.5–18.8) of dogs were exposed to a single pathogen while 2.4 (95% CI 1.4–4.2) and 0.4% (95% CI 0.1–1.4) were simultaneously exposed to two or three pathogens, respectively. Major risk factors associated with VBDs were living outdoors ( Anaplasma spp., P  = 0.0001; Ehrlichia spp., P  = 0.0001), female sex ( Ehrlichia spp., P  = 0.005), German Shepherd breed ( Anaplasma spp., P  = 0.04; Ehrlichia spp., P  = 0.03), tick infestation ( Anaplasma spp., P  = 0.0001; Ehrlichia spp., P  = 0.0001; B. burgdorferi ( s.l. ), P  = 0.003; D. immitis, P  = 0.02), irregular sanitation ( Anaplasma spp., P  = 0.0001; Ehrlichia spp., P  = 0.0001; B. burgdorferi ( s.l. ), P  = 0.002; D. immitis, P  = 0.01) and not using ectoparasiticides ( Anaplasma spp., P  = 0.0001; Ehrlichia spp., P  = 0.0001; B. burgdorferi ( s.l. ), P  = 0.007). Conclusion To our knowledge, this is the first large-scale seroepidemiological study of CVBDs in Egypt. Considering that all of the detected pathogens are potentially zoonotic, effective ectoparasite control strategies, regular examination of pet dogs and successful chemoprophylaxis are advocated. Graphical Abstract

Background The objective of this field study was to assess the effect of treating a considerable portion of a dog population naturally exposed to canine vector-borne pathogens (CVBPs) in endemic areas with a 10% w/w imidacloprid/4.5% w/w flumethrin collar (Seresto®) on the transmission of CVBPs and the resulting incidence of infection. Methods A total of 479 dogs from two sites were enrolled in the study. Collars were placed on all dogs continuously for 21 months, with replacement of the collar every 7 months. All dogs were examined, including body weight and blood/conjunctival swab collections, every 7 months. Serum samples were analysed for the presence of antibodies against Leishmania infantum , Ehrlichia canis and Anaplasma phagocytophilum . PCR assays were also performed on blood samples and conjunctival swab collected from the dogs for the presence of L. infantum , and on blood samples only for the presence of Ehrlichia spp. and Anaplasma spp. Sand flies were collected, identified to species level and molecularly tested for L. infantum throughout two vector activity seasons. Results The results showed that the Seresto collar was safe with continuous use. At study inclusion, 419, 370 and 453 dogs tested negative for L. infantum , Ehrlichia spp. and Anaplasma spp., respectively (353 dogs tested negative for any pathogen). Overall, 90.2% of the dogs were protected from L. infantum infection on both sites combined. The entomological survey confirmed the presence of competent vectors of L. infantum at all monitored locations, namely the sand flies Phlebotomus neglectus and Phlebotomus tobbi , both of which are regarded as the most important competent vectors in the Mediterranean basin. All captured sand flies tested negative for L. infantum. Protection against ticks and fleas was high, with only two dogs showing a low number of ticks and seven dogs having low numbers of fleas at single evaluation time points. Across the entire study population, a number of dogs became infected with tick-transmitted pathogens, but prevention of transmission was 93% for E. canis and 87.2% for Anaplasma spp. when all cases from both sites were combined. Conclusions The Seresto ® (10% w/w imidacloprid/4.5% w/w flumethrin) collar significantly reduced the risk of CVBP transmission when compared to previously observed incidences of CVBP infections in two highly endemic areas under field conditions. Graphical Abstract

Canine vector-borne pathogens are a group of widespread microorganisms and nematodes transmitted by arthropods that do not only impact dog health but may also pose a health risk to humans as many of them are zoonotic. As no data exist on the presence of canine vector-borne pathogens in Kosovo, we here present a first study on the seroprevalence of selected vector-borne pathogens, the dog heartworm Dirofilaria immitis and the bacteria Anaplasma spp., Ehrlichia spp. and Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato. The study was carried out from July to October 2019 in all regions of Kosovo and included 149 clinically healthy dogs (84 owned, 40 sheltered and 25 free-ranging). Blood samples collected from each individual were tested using a commercially available rapid multiplex enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. In total, 37.6% of the examined dogs were seropositive for one or more of the target pathogens. Most frequently, antibodies were found against Anaplasma spp. (24.8% of the dogs tested), followed by antigen detection of D. immitis (14.8%) and antibodies of B. burgdorferi s.l. (1.3%). The lowest antibody prevalence (0.7%) showed E. canis where only one dog was found positive. This preliminary study demonstrates the circulation of several zoonotic vector-borne pathogens in natural cycles involving dogs in Kosovo. It should trigger studies on infection prevalences in humans and initiate vector surveillance programmes in order to manage and control transmission and the diseases associated with the pathogens.

Canine vector-borne pathogens (CVBPs) represent a challenge for veterinary transfusion medicine, since some can be transmitted by blood transfusion and are of zoonotic concern. Epidemiological data on CVBPs, obtained during 10 years of pre-donor screening (2012–2021) by a veterinary blood bank in central Italy, were used to conduct a retrospective epidemiological longitudinal survey. The results were obtained using the Immunofluorescent Antibody Test (IFAT) conducted on sera in order to assess IgG antibodies against Leishmania infantum, Ehrlichia canis, Anaplasma phagocythophilum, Babesia canis, and Rickettsia conorii; the modified Knott’s test and an ELISA kit were used to detect Dirofilaria immitis and Dirofilaria repens. In total, 324 out of the 1260 canine blood donors (25.71%) tested seropositive for at least one pathogen. The highest overall positive rate was detected for L. infantum (12.22%), followed by E. canis (2.30%), A. phagocytophilum (1.19%), D. repens (0.95%), D. immitis (0.32%), and B. canis (0.16%). From 2012 to 2014, a prevalence of 20.12% was recorded for R. conorii. Mixed infections were recorded in 21 dogs. For all the CVBPs investigated, significant differences (p < 0.05) were not observed over the period studied. The results evidenced a non-negligible prevalence of CVBPs in canine donors, which were selected based on strict criteria concerning regular endo- and ectoparasite controls. The results confirmed that the blood bank could be a reliable local epidemiological observatory. The need for implemented screening is discussed.

Canine vector-borne diseases (CVBDs), transmitted by arthropods, are widespread globally and pose significant health risks to dogs. Diagnosing CVBDs, particularly co-infections, is challenging for laboratory technicians. This study in Thailand evaluated 270 canine blood samples for vector-borne pathogens using microscopy, conventional PCR (cPCR), and the Vcheck M Canine Vector 8 Panel (Vcheck). Microscopy was used for initial screening, while cPCR and Vcheck tested for exposure to eight CVBDs-causing genera ( Ehrlichia , Hepatozoon , Mycoplasma , Anaplasma , Rickettsia , Babesia , Leishmania , and Bartonella ). Among 220 dogs, infection rates were high in suspected cases: 68.9% by microscopy, 73.7% by cPCR, and 76.3% by Vcheck. Notably, 20.0% of infected dogs had co-infections, primarily with E. canis and B. vogeli . The remaining 50 dogs were negative by microscopic examination. Agreement between methods ranged from moderate to almost perfect. Vcheck demonstrates significant potential for CVBDs epidemiological surveillance, offering a valuable tool for researchers and clinicians in Thailand and beyond.

Background Leishmaniosis and other canine vector-borne diseases (CVBDs) pose a major risk for veterinary and public health globally, especially where humans and dogs live in close proximity. Although mosquito and tick vectors are abundant in Hong Kong, surveillance for CVBDs has been limited. Methods A serological and molecular survey of 158 healthy owned ( n  = 64) and free-roaming unowned ( n  = 94) dogs with outdoor access in Hong Kong was performed to determine CVBD prevalence. Point-of-care (POC) immunoassays were used to detect (i) antibodies to Leishmania spp., Ehrlichia spp., and Anaplasma spp., and (ii) Dirofilaria immitis and Angiostrongylus vasorum antigens, in canine sera. Conventional polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was also carried out to detect the molecular prevalence of all five pathogens as well as Hepatazoon canis , Babesia gibsoni , and Trypanosoma evansi . In addition, for Leishmania spp. detection, an immunofluorescence antibody test (IFAT) was performed on all serum samples, followed by real-time PCR of seropositive samples to detect Leishmania spp. DNA. The agreement between tests was assessed by Cohen’s kappa statistic, and logistic regression analysis was applied to identify potential risk factors. Results Overall, 45.6% of dogs tested positive on molecular and/or serological tests for at least one pathogen, with the highest prevalence recorded for Dirofilaria spp. (20.9%), followed by B. gibsoni (15.2%), Leishmania spp. (11.4%), Anaplasma spp. (7.6%), H. canis (4.4%), Ehrlichia spp. (3.8%), and A. vasorum (0.6%). No T. evansi DNA was detected. Co-infections or co-pathogen exposure occurred in 16.5% of samples. Of the 33 Dirofilaria spp.-positive dogs, two were identified by sequencing as Dirofilaria asiatica , and the remaining 31 were D. immitis . No significant risk factors for infection or exposure were identified. Conclusions This is the first epidemiological survey of Leishmania spp. infection in dogs from Hong Kong, highlighting the need for surveillance of competent vectors and further investigation of disease status in dog populations to confirm whether this pathogen is endemic. Given the high prevalence of CVBD, especially of D. immitis, preventive and control measures are advocated in order to mitigate risks to canine health and zoonotic infection. Graphical abstract

The Companion Vector-Borne Diseases (CVBD) World Forum is a working group of leading international experts who meet annually to evaluate current scientific findings and future trends concerning the distribution, pathogenesis, clinical presentation, diagnosis and prevention of vector-borne infections of dogs and cats. At the 14th Symposium of the CVBD World Forum in Trieste, Italy (March 25–28, 2019), we identified the need to (i) bring attention to the potential spread of parasites and vectors with relocated dogs, and (ii) provide advice to the veterinary profession regarding the importance of surveillance and treatment for parasites and vector-borne infections when rehoming dogs. This letter shares a consensus statement from the CVBD World Forum as well as a summary of the problem faced, including the role of veterinary professionals in parasite surveillance, causal issues, and the importance of interdisciplinary cooperation in addressing the problem. To limit opportunities for dissemination of parasites and vectors, whenever possible, underlying problems creating the need for dog rehoming should be addressed. However, when it is necessary to rehome dogs, this should ideally take place in the country and national region of origin. When geographically distant relocation occurs, veterinary professionals have a vital role to play in public education, vigilance for detection of exotic vectors and infections, and alerting the medical community to the risk(s) for pathogen spread. With appropriate veterinary intervention, dog welfare needs can be met without inadvertently allowing global spread of parasites and their vectors.

Background Dogs in the US are commonly infected with vector-borne pathogens, including heartworm and tick-borne disease agents. The geographic distribution of both arthropod vectors and the pathogens they transmit continues to expand. Methods To describe the current geographic distribution and prevalence of antigen of Dirofilaria immitis and antibody to Borrelia burgdorferi , Ehrlichia spp., and Anaplasma spp. in dogs, we summarized over 144 million test results from 2013 to 2019, inclusive, by county, state, and region. Canine seroprevalence by state was compared to population-adjusted human reports of tick-borne diseases. Results Results varied regionally, with D. immitis antigen and Ehrlichia spp. antibodies more frequently detected in the Southeast (2.6% and 5.2%, respectively) and antibody to B. burgdorferi and Anaplasma spp. most common in the Northeast (12.1% and 7.3%, respectively). Overall, percent positive test results to D. immitis decreased in the Southeast by 33.3% when compared to earlier summaries using the same strategy (from 3.9 to 2.6%). Geographic expansion of areas where dogs commonly test positive for Ehrlichia spp. was evident, likely because of a change in the test made in 2012 to allow detection of antibodies to E. ewingii concomitant with expansion of vector tick populations. Percent positive test results to Ehrlichia spp. increased in every region; this shift was particularly pronounced in the Southeast, where percent positive test results increased fourfold (from 1.3 to 5.2%). Continued geographic expansion of B. burgdorferi and A. phagocytophilum was apparent in the Northeast, Midwest, and Upper South, although canine seroprevalence of antibody to B. burgdorferi was much lower than prior surveys in many Lyme-endemic areas. Annual reports of human cases of Lyme disease, ehrlichiosis, and anaplasmosis were associated with percent positive canine results by state for the three tick-borne disease agents ( R 2  = 0.812, 0.521, and 0.546, respectively). Within endemic areas, percent positive test results for all three tick-borne agents demonstrated evidence of geographic expansion. Conclusions Large scale analysis of results from screening dogs in practice for evidence of vector-borne infections, including those with zoonotic importance, continues to be a valuable strategy for understanding geographic trends in infection risk over time. Graphical Abstract

Background Canine vector-borne diseases (CVBDs) are illnesses caused by pathogens transmitted by blood-feeding arthropods such as ticks and mosquitoes. Many CVBDs, including dirofilariosis, anaplasmosis, and ehrlichiosis, are globally distributed and may cause a variety of clinical signs in dogs. Several CVBD agents are zoonotic, making epidemiological surveillance a joint veterinary and public health effort. In this study, we determined the seropositivity of four pathogens from dogs on Saipan, Northern Mariana Islands, a US Commonwealth located in the western Pacific Ocean. Methods Blood samples ( n  = 443) were collected from client-owned, owner surrendered, and shelter dogs that participated in an island-wide spay-and-neuter event in 2023. All samples were assessed using a commercial, point-of-care enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) test (SNAP ® 4Dx ® Plus, IDEXX Laboratory, Westbrook, Maine, USA) to detect the Dirofilaria immitis antigen and antibodies against Ehrlichia spp., Anaplasma spp., and Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato. Risk factors were assessed for each pathogen through a univariate analysis, followed by a multivariable logistic regression. Results Overall, 66.1% ( n  = 300/443) of the dogs tested positive for at least one pathogen, with the highest prevalence observed for Ehrlichia spp. (58.0%; n  = 246/443), followed by Anaplasma spp. (43.1%; n  = 184/443) and D. immitis (14.8%; n  = 63/443). Among the dogs with a single pathogen detected (30.9%; n  = 137/443), Ehrlichia spp. was most prevalent (64.9%; n  = 89/137), followed by Anaplasma spp. (23.3%; n  = 32/137) and D. immitis (11.6%; n  = 16/137). For co-detection of two or more pathogens (36.7%; n  = 163/443), Ehrlichia spp. +  Anaplasma spp. presented the highest frequency (70.5%; n  = 115/163), followed by Ehrlichia spp. +  D. immitis (6.7%; n  = 11/163), Anaplasma spp. +  D. immitis (3.6%; n  = 6/163), and Ehrlichia spp. +  Anaplasma spp. +  D. immitis (19.0%; n  = 31/163). Age ( P  = < 0.001), residing district ( P  = 0.001), and ownership status ( P  = < 0.001) were significantly associated with D. immitis positive status in a univariable analysis. Age ( P  = < 0.001), residing district ( P  = 0.177), and ownership status ( P  = 0.014) were significant in a univariable analysis with Ehrlichia spp. as an outcome. Finally, Anaplasma spp. had a significant association with ownership status ( P  = < 0.001) as a risk factor in a univariable analysis. Conclusions This study shows high seropositivity for CVBPs in a dog population living in a poorly studied area. The results of this study suggest that strategies for the prevention and control of these CVBDs should be reinforced on the Island of Saipan. Graphical Abstract