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The South American tomato pinworm, Tuta absoluta (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), has invaded most Afro-Eurasian countries and is threatening worldwide tomato production. Various strategies have been developed and implemented to manage this pest. Here, we present a timely review on the up-to-date development and practical implementation of integrated pest management (IPM) programs for tomato crops across different world regions infested by T. absoluta . While insecticide resistance is a growing concern, biological control via releasing or conserving arthropod natural enemies and sex pheromone-based biotechnical control are the most successful management practices. Agronomic control-related research is an emerging area where the soil fertilization and/or irrigation, as well as breeding of resistant cultivars, has the potential to enhance IPM effectiveness. Grower survey responses in the native areas (i.e., South America), early-invaded areas (i.e., first report between 2006 and 2012) and newly invaded areas (i.e., first report after 2012) showed that the control programs evolved along with the areas and time since invasion. Growers in the early-invaded areas shifted more rapidly from chemical control to biological control compared to those from the native area. In all concerned regions, the pest control failure risk following chemical insecticide applications and the high cost associated with either biological or biotechnical control methods have been the greatest concerns for growers. The information gathered from the native and/or early-invaded areas may help achieve a more effective management in newly invaded areas. Lastly, researchers are expected to break the bottlenecks of some key issues that would enable lowering application cost of novel biorational alternative management options.

Varroa destructor is among the greatest biological threats to western honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) health worldwide. Beekeepers routinely use chemical treatments to control this parasite, though overuse and mismanagement of these treatments have led to widespread resistance in Varroa populations. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is an ecologically based, sustainable approach to pest management that relies on a combination of control tactics that minimize environmental impacts. Herein, we provide an in-depth review of the components of IPM in a Varroa control context. These include determining economic thresholds for the mite, identification of and monitoring for Varroa, prevention strategies, and risk conscious treatments. Furthermore, we provide a detailed review of cultural, mechanical, biological, and chemical control strategies, both longstanding and emerging, used against Varroa globally. For each control type, we describe all available treatments, their efficacies against Varroa as described in the primary scientific literature, and the obstacles to their adoption. Unfortunately, reliable IPM protocols do not exist for Varroa due to the complex biology of the mite and strong reliance on chemical control by beekeepers. To encourage beekeeper adoption, a successful IPM approach to Varroa control in managed colonies must be an improvement over conventional control methods and include cost-effective treatments that can be employed readily by beekeepers. It is our intention to provide the most thorough review of Varroa control options available, ultimately framing our discussion within the context of IPM. We hope this article is a call-to-arms against the most damaging pest managed honey bee colonies face worldwide.

This study evaluated the toxicity of the insecticide spinetoram at different doses [1.25, 1.87, 2.5, 3.75 and 5.0 g of active ingredient/100 L of water - (g of a.i./100 L)] on adults and larvae of C. capitata. Based on the LC50 and LC90 values, spinetoram showed high toxicity against C. capitata adults in the ingestion bioassay (LC50 = 1.95 and LC90 = 5.10 µg a.i./mL) and topical application (LC50 = 3.10 and LC90 = 8.10 µg a.i./mL), and was statistically superior to acetamiprid + etofenprox (ingestion: LC50 = 5.87 and LC90 = 12.04 µg a.i./mL; topical application: LC50 = 14.05 and LC90 = 21.06 µg a.i./mL). However, spinetoram was less toxic than Chlorpyrifos (ingestion: LC50 = 0.95 and LC90 = 3.06 µg a.i./mL; topical application: LC50 = 0.67 and LC90 = 2.45 µg a.i./mL). At a dose of 5.0 g of a.i./100 L, spinetoram was highly toxic against the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd larval instars in immersion bioassays (80% larval mortality). However, it was not effective against larvae inside the fruits when applied via direct spraying in the region opposite to the sites of oviposition by C. capitata. In contrast, spinetoram (5.0 g a.i./100 L) and chlorpyrifos reduced larval viability when applied directly to the oviposition region. In the field, after three applications at intervals of 14 days, spinetoram (5.0 g a.i./100 L) and chlorpyrifos (96 mL a.i./100 L) reduced damage in orange fruits by more than 95%. According to the results, the insecticide spinetoram can be an alternative to chlorpyrifos and acetamiprid + etofenprox for the control of C. capitata. RESUMO: Este estudo avaliou a toxicidade do inseticida espinetoram em diferentes doses [1,25, 1,87, 2,5, 3,75 e 5,0 g de princípio ativo/100 L de água - (g de i.a./100 L)] em adultos e larvas de C. capitata. Com base nos valores de CL50 e CL90, o espinetoram apresentou alta toxicidade contra adultos de C. capitata em bioensaio por ingestão (CL50 = 1,95 e CL90 = 5,10 µg i.a./mL) e após aplicação tópica (LC50 = 3,10 e CL90 = 8,10µg i.a./mL), sendo estatisticamente superior ao acetamiprido + etofenproxi (ingestão: CL50 = 5,87 e CL90=12,04 µg i.a./mL; aplicação tópica: CL50 = 14,05 e CL90 = 21,06 µg i.a./mL). Entretanto, foi menos tóxico que o Clorpirifós (ingestão: CL50 = 0,95 e CL90 = 3,06 µg i.a./mL; aplicação tópica: CL50 = 0,67 e CL90 = 2,45 µg i.a./mL). Na dose de 5,0 g de i.a./100 L, o espinetoram foi altamente tóxico contra larvas de 1º, 2º e 3º instares em bioensaios de imersão (80% de mortalidade larval). No entanto, não foi eficaz contra as larvas no interior dos frutos quando aplicado via pulverização direta na região oposta aos locais de oviposição de C. capitata. Por outro lado, quando aplicado diretamente na região de oviposição, o espinetoram (5,0 g i.a./100 L) e o clorpirifós reduziram a viabilidade larval. No campo, após três aplicações com intervalos de 14 dias, o espinetoram (5,0 g i.a./100 L) e o clorpirifós (96 mL i.a./100 L) reduziram os danos em frutos de laranja em mais de 95%. De acordo com os resultados, o inseticida espinetoram pode ser uma alternativa ao cloripirifós e acetamiprido + etofenproxi para o controle de C. capitata.

The beet army worm, Spodoptera exigua , is a widely distributed polyphagous pest of economically important crops worldwide. The management of this pest insect continues to face many challenges. Despite synthetic chemicals posing a serious threat to the environment, these remain the conventional approach for controlling S. exigua in the field. An over-reliance on chemical control has not only led to selection for resistance to insecticides and to a reduction of natural enemies, but has also polluted various components of ecosystem. Given these increasing pressures on the ecosystem, there is a need to implement integrated pest management (IPM) approaches exploiting a wider range of tools (biotechnological approaches, microbial control, biological control, cultural control, and use of host plant resistance) for an alternative to chemical control. The IPM approach can not only reduce the hazard of chemical residues in the environment and associated health problems, but may also provide best strategies to control insect pests. This review synthesizes published information on insecticide resistance of S. exigua and explores alternative IPM approaches to control S. exigua .

Insecticides and genetically modified Bt crops are the main tools for control of the fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith). Since its invasion of Africa, the Far East, and Australia where Bt crops are largely absent, insecticide use has increased and reduced susceptibility to several insecticides used for decades in its native distribution area have been reported. Poor efficacy at field-level is sometimes incorrectly ascribed to pest resistance, while numerous other factors influence efficacy at field-level. In this paper, we review the history of insecticide resistance in S. frugiperda and discuss the influence that life history traits, migration ecology, and chemical control practices may have on control efficacy and resistance evolution. The indirect role that poor national policies have on pesticide use practices, and indirectly on control efficacy and selection pressure is discussed. Evidence shows that local selection for resistance drives resistance evolution. Integrated pest management, rather than reliance on a single tactic, is the best way to suppress S. frugiperda numbers and the over-use of insecticides which selects for resistance.