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Code-switching is a common phenomenon in bilingual communities, but little is known about bilingual parents’ code-switching when speaking to their infants. In a pre-registered study, we identified instances of code-switching in day-long at-home audio recordings of 21 French–English bilingual families in Montreal, Canada, who provided recordings when their infant was 10 and 18 months old. Overall, rates of infant-directed code-switching were low, averaging 7 times per hour (6 times per 1,000 words) at 10 months and increasing to 28 times per hour (18 times per 1,000 words) at 18 months. Parents code-switched more between sentences than within a sentence; this pattern was even more pronounced when infants were 18 months than when they were 10 months. The most common apparent reasons for code-switching were to bolster their infant's understanding and to teach vocabulary words. Combined, these results suggest that bilingual parents code-switch in ways that support successful bilingual language acquisition.

There has been increasing ambiguity and debate about the meaning and applicability of the terms codeswitching and translanguaging in English language classrooms. To address this issue, this article first offers a historical overview of the literature on codeswitching and translanguaging. This overview serves as the basis for an updated framework that highlights necessary areas of shift in conceptualization from codeswitching to translanguaging, and dimensions of codeswitching research that can still be integrated into a translanguaging lens. This framework is illuminated through an autobiographical narrative inquiry analysis of a teacher educator and a student-researcher at an English-medium university in Kazakhstan, a country that is officially bilingual and developing policies and practices to promote trilingualism. The article reinforces the argument that teachers, teacher educators, and ESOL researchers need to shift from a separate (monoglossic) view of languaging practices to a holistic (heteroglossic) view. Research on teachers’ beliefs and language practices need to be reviewed critically to identify whether they take a monoglossic or heteroglossic view of language practices. The preponderance of spontaneous rather than strategic pedagogical use of translanguaging suggests that teachers and teacher educators in Englishlanguage classrooms need to be explicitly taught ways to incorporate heteroglossic ideologies and intentional translanguaging pedagogies into their teaching practice.

In language policy research, ‘policy’ has traditionally been conceptualised as a notion separate from that of ‘practice’. In fact, language practices were usually analysed with a view to evaluate whether a policy is being implemented or resisted to. Recently, however, Spolsky in (Language policy. Cambridge University press, Cambridge, 2004 ; Work Pap Educ Linguist 22(1):1–14, 2007 ; Encyclopedia of language and education. Springer, New York, 2008 ) has argued that policy and practice need not be seen as distinct and that there is a policy within language practices themselves. In this paper, I propose to call the policy found at the level of language practices a ‘ practiced language policy ’. The aim of this paper is to explore further this new conceptualisation of language policy and to propose an approach to research it. I argue that Conversation Analysis in its broad sense (that is, including Sequential Analysis and Membership Categorisation Analysis) can be an efficient tool to discover practiced language policies and give an illustration of this argument drawing on a case study of an induction classroom for newly-arrived immigrant children in France.

Contemporary globalized society is characterized by mobility and change, two phenomena that have a direct impact on the broad linguistic landscape. Language proficiency is no longer seen as a monolithic phenomenon that occurs independently of the linguistic repertoires and trajectories of learners and teachers, but rather shaped by uneven and ever-changing competences, both linguistic and cultural. In the European context, research conducted over the past 20 years in multilingual realities of local communities and societies has brought to the forefront the notion of plurilingualism, which is opening up new perspectives in language education. In North American academia, the paradigm shift from linguistic homogeneity and purism to heteroglossic and plurilingual competence in applied linguistics has been observed in the emergence of such concepts as disinventing languages, translanguaging, and code-meshing. Starting from a historical perspective, this article examines the shared principles upon which such innovative understandings of linguistic competence are based. In particular, it investigates the specificity of plurilingualism as an individual characteristic clearly distinct from multilingualism in the light of different theoretical lenses. The author discusses the potential of such vision together with its implications. Finally, this article offers pedagogical implications for English language education in the North American context, and suggests ways to investigate the new active role that English language learners and teachers can adopt in shaping their process of learning English.

This article makes the case for conducting ethnographic research of a multi-scalar nature that links language policy processes and ideologies of language with everyday practices, on the ground, in local schools and classrooms. As with other researchers engaged in the ethnography of language policy (e.g. McCarty, 2011; Johnson, 2013), my concern is with the ways in which language policies in multilingual countries are translated into classroom practice, the ways teachers and school administrators understand and respond to policy changes and the ways in which communication between teachers and learners is shaped by the introduction of a new medium of instruction. The research presented here focuses on language policy and classroom practice in Timor-Leste. On Independence in 2002, Tetum and Portuguese were chosen to be the two official languages of the country and the main languages of teaching and learning in the school system. My main research sites have been primary schools and classrooms in Timor-Leste and I have adopted a linguistic ethnographic approach, combining ethnography with close analysis of classroom discourse and with discourse analysis of policy documents and interviews. I have used the concept of language ideology as an analytical lens in examining the language policy discourses of policymakers and teachers. Teachers in Timor-Leste are regarded by policymakers as the mere facilitators of the process of implementing Tetum and Portuguese language-in-education policy within the education system. Through the analysis of interview data presented here, I show that teachers assumed this role and shared the belief that Tetum and Portuguese were legitimate official languages of Timor-Leste. Then, through analysis of codeswitching in classroom interaction, in one Year 6 classroom, I show how values around Tetum and Portuguese were being discursively constructed by the teacher, particularly in talk around monolingual texts in Portuguese.

Drawing on the translanguaging practices of Mongolian background English as a Second Language (ESL) immigrant women in Australia, this paper points out two main theoretical points: (1) when translanguaging moves beyond the classroom, it may provide ESL immigrants with an emotionally and linguistically safe space where they feel comfortable in managing their negative emotions through employing multiple entangled layers of linguistic and paralinguistic resources; (2) translanguaging data further presents that these ESL immigrants are deeply emotional and are prone to depression, putting their mental well-being in jeopardy. As a result of their depression, their academic concentration is inhibited, as is their ability to learn English well or easily. We, as TESOL educators, therefore, need to consider two critical educational implications: (1) how ESL immigrant students use different linguistic repertoires outside the classroom, what they talk about, and which emotions they prefer to express in which forms of their linguistic repertoire; and their multiple emotions, traumas and psychological issues embedded within their multiple ways of learning, being, and speaking; (2) consolidate appropriate interventions aimed at reducing depressive symptoms that have the potential to negatively impact academic performance existing in L2 sociocultural contexts.

Teachers often code-switch in the EFL classroom, but the question of whether or not they are aware of their code-switching has not been satisfactorily answered. This article presents the study on teachers’ understandings and beliefs about their code-switching practices in EFL classrooms as well as effective language teaching and learning. The participants of this study came from four junior high schools in Padang, West Sumatra, Indonesia: five teachers with their respective classes. This research used the conversation analysis and stimulated recall interviews to analyze the data which came from the video recording of classroom observations and the audio recording of stimulated recall interviews with teachers. The results revealed the pedagogical functions and affective functions of teacher’s code-switching. The data also showed that the use of stimulated recall interviews helped teachers to be consciously aware of their code-switching as well as of their other pedagogical practices in the language classroom. Therefore, stimulated recall interviews can be a useful tool for teacher self-reflection that they were not aware of their code switch. This awareness could be incorporated into language teacher professional development and in-service teacher professional learning.

In this study, we investigate whether preposition stranding, a stereotypical non-standard feature of North American French, results from convergence with English, and the role of bilingual code-switchers in its adoption and diffusion. Establishing strict criteria for the validation of contact-induced change, we make use of the comparative variationist framework, first to situate stranding with respect to the other options for preposition placement with which it coexists in the host language grammar, and then to confront the variable constraints on stranding across source and host languages, contact and pre-contact stages of the host language, mainstream and “bilingual” varieties of the source language, and copious and sparse code-switchers. Detailed comparison with a superficially similar pre-existing native language construction also enables us to assess the possibility of a language-internal model for preposition stranding. Systematic quantitative analyses turned up several lines of evidence militating against the interpretation of convergence. Most compelling are the findings that the conditions giving rise to stranding in French are the same as those operating to produce the native strategy, while none of them are operative in the presumed source. Explicit comparison of copious vs. sparse code-switchers revealed no difference between them, refuting claims that the former are agents of convergence. Results confirm that surface similarities may mask deeper differences, a crucial finding for the study of contact-induced change.

Situations of language contact are often the norm for sign languages. This article investigates a case of unimodal contact between Cena, a young sign language in its third generation that is used in a small rural community in Brazil, and Libras, the national sign language of Brazil. Our analysis concerns one by-product of this contact: reiterative code-switches, wherein signers produce a sequence of two signs—one from each language—with the same meaning to label a single referent. We consider several motivations detailed in existing literature on code-switching, before proposing an explanation motivated by the disambiguation of reversible (therefore potentially ambiguous) verb events, primarily by using reiteration to focus agents. We suggest that with this phenomenon, we see signers employ a previously unattested strategy to mark arguments and thereby aid syntactic disambiguation.

Studies on translanguaging of multilingual students have turned their attention to teachable strategies in classrooms. This study is based on the assumption that it is possible to learn from students' translanguaging strategies while developing their proficiency through a dialogical pedagogy. Based on a classroom ethnography, this article describes the translanguaging strategies of a Saudi Arabian undergraduate student in her essay writing. Her strategies are classified through thematic coding of multiple forms of data: drafts of essay, journals, classroom assignments, peer review, stimulated recall, and member check. The strategies are of 4 types: recontextualization strategies, voice strategies, interactional strategies, and textualization strategies. The study describes how the feedback of the instructor and peers can help students question their choices, think critically about diverse options, assess the effectiveness of their choices, and develop metacognitive awareness.