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\"Social Movements Contesting Natural Resource Development presents numerous case studies exploring questions concerning rural social movements confronting land grabs, infrastructure corridors, mines, dams, resource processing plants, and pipelines. Natural resource development takes multiple forms such as deforestation and creation of plantations, dams, mines, pipelines, oil and gas drilling, fracking, many of which are driven by economic valuations, whist social and environmental effects are given limited consideration. In this volume authors discuss the emergence, process and outcomes of social movements with respect to these natural resource development projects, including examples of confrontation seeking to either block developments or promote alternative development approaches, such as agritourism. The examples taken from Africa, Asia, North America, Europe and Latin America demonstrate the diversity of struggles stimulated by natural resource development, including both immediate and longer-term effects, repertoires of action, political and cultural work. Taken together the case studies provide a rich overview of current movements engaged in resisting the neoliberal agenda of global resource exploitation. This book will be key reading for those interested in social movements, natural resource development, environmental policy, international development, rural development or global development. It will also be of interest to activists engaged in mobilizations stimulated by natural resource development projects\"-- Provided by publisher.

In conservation projects in and around protected areas (PAs), a suite of policy instruments are used to promote conservation behavior in local people. Few studies have related psychological research on motivational values to conservation in PAs. We conducted a systematic review of 120 peer-reviewed articles to assess the relative frequencies of policy instruments that aimed to foster intrinsic versus extrinsic motivations to conserve. We examined how the type of motivation engendered by the instrument (i.e., intrinsic or extrinsic motivation and based on the description of how the project was designed and implemented) influenced the ecological, economic, and social success of the project. We assessed the success of the project in only the case studies that included a quantitative or qualitative analysis of success. Projects designed to foster at least one intrinsically motivating instrument were 3 times more likely to meet socioeconomic or ecological goals. Although certain types of instruments such as payments or fines tended to be based on extrinsic motivators more often than education or monitoring programs, several successful projects involving payments or fines were linked to intrinsic motivation in the local community. Thus, our results suggest that rather than debating the relative merits of specific types of policy instruments, conservationists may have more success by focusing on how different motivators, suited to specific contexts, can better empower local communities to conserve. Broadly, our results suggest the current emphasis on social justice and well-being of local communities is a positive step toward protecting the world's remaining biodiversity. En los proyectos de conservación en y alrededor de las áreas protegidas (APs), un conjunto de instrumentos políticos es usado para promover el comportamiento de conservación entre la gente local. Pocos estudios han relacionado a la investigación psicológica sobre los valores motivacionales con la conservación en las APs. Realizamos una revisión sistemática de 120 artículos revisados por colegas para valorar las frecuencias relativas de los instrumentos políticos que buscaban fomentar las motivaciones intrínsecas para conservar contra las extrínsecas. Examinamos cómo los tipos de motivación generados por el instrumento (es decir, la motivación intrínseca o extrínseca y basado en la descripción de cómo el proyecto fue diseñado e implementado) influyeron sobre el éxito ecológico, económico y social del proyecto. Valoramos el éxito del proyecto sólo en los estudios de caso que incluyeron un análisis cualitativo o cuantitativo del éxito. Los proyectos diseñados para promover por lo menos un instrumento de motivación intrínseca tuvieron tres veces más probabilidad de alcanzar los objetivos ecológicos o socio-económicos. Aunque ciertos tipos de instrumentos, como los pagos o las multas, tuvieron la tendencia de estar basados en motivadores extrínsecos más veces que la educación o los programas de monitoreo, muchos proyectos exitosos que involucraban pagos o multas estuvieron conectados a la motivación intrínseca en la comunidad local. Por esto, nuestros resultados sugieren que en lugar de debatir los méritos relativos de los tipos específicos de instrumentos políticos, los conservacionistas pueden tener más éxito si se enfocan en cómo los motivadores diferentes, ajustados a contextos específicos, pueden empoderar de mejor manera a las comunidades locales para conservar. En general, nuestros resultados sugieren que el énfasis actual sobre la justicia social y el bienestar de las comunidades locales es un paso positivo hacia la protección de la biodiversidad mundial restante.

Community‐based natural resource management is a common strategy for conserving biodiversity, but little is known about how such initiatives can scale appropriately and widely. We interviewed 80 experts across 5 widely adopted community‐based initiatives (in Chile, Nepal, Namibia, Madagascar, and Fiji) to understand their perspectives on the drivers of adoption and spread. We used general elimination methodology and diffusion of innovation theory to identify and rule out possible explanations. Factors consistently considered influential were economic and social benefits, compatibility with needs, support and facilitation by extension agencies, and the presence of international organizations. Initiatives aiming to scale should be designed to be flexible and aligned with adopters’ needs, and external organizations should coordinate resources for scaling out. Dependence on external support underscores the need for quality assistance, good practices by external actors, and understanding power relations and fairness, as well as the need to temper donor and policy expectations of scaling beyond supported and appropriate sites.

Protected areas fall far short of securing the space needed to sustain biodiversity and ecosystem function at a global scale and in the face of climate change. The prospects of conserving biodiversity in working landscapes help buffer the insularization effects of protected areas and hold great potential for biodiversity conservation on a landscape scale but depend on finding adequate space and a meaningful place in the lives of rural land users. Using a case study in southern Kenya, we show that the conservation of large open landscapes, biodiversity and the coexistence between wildlife and livestock can be achieved indirectly by reinforcing pastoral practices that depend on open space, mobility, social networks and institutional arrangements governing common‐pool resources. Pastoral practices and wildlife both depend on large multiscale interactions within interlinked social and ecological systems, which are threatened by land fragmentation, alienation and degradation. We show that large open spaces can be maintained by using a conservation approach starting from within community aspirations that emphasize the links between livelihoods, productivity, efficiency and resilience in pastoral economies and the secondary benefits of wildlife enterprises. Scaling up from an ecosystem to multi‐scale approach benefits pastoral communities by building resilience and new economic opportunities. In the process, the expanded scale conserves regional biodiversity and large free‐ranging herbivore and carnivore populations underpinning ecosystem function and the nationally important tourism industry centered on the Kenya–Tanzania boundary. The ‘inside‐out’ approach to the conservation of wildlife and biodiversity is place‐based, draws on local knowledge and informal governance arrangements and avoids the stigma of wildlife conservation driven by outside agencies. The human‐centered approach reinforces land health and spatial connectivity and encourages multi‐level and distributed governance arrangements embedded in large regional and national jurisdictions. Translated Kikemikali Maeneo ya uhifadhi, ukuzingatia mabadiliko ya hali ya hewa, hayajafikia kiwango kinachohitajika kudumisha uendelevu wa bianuwai na utenda kazi wa ikolojia ulimwenguni. Kuhifadhi bianuwai kwenye ardhi inayotumika na watu yaweza kusaidia kuzuia maeneo ya uhifadhi kuwa visiwa, hivyo basi kuimarisha uwezo wa kuhifadhi bianuwai kwa maeneo makubwa ya mazingira. Lakini hili lategemea kupata nafasi ya kutosha, na umuhimu wake kutambulika katika maisha ya watumia ardhi vijijini. Kutumia uchunguzi wetu kwenye eneo la kusini mwa Kenya, twaonyesha ya kwamba uhifadhi wa maeneo makubwa ya mazingira yaliyowazi, uhifadhi ya bianuwai, na usawa wa utangamano baina ya wanyamapori na mifugo kwawezekana kupitia kuimaarisha tabia za ufugaji zinazotegemea maeneo yaliyowazi, uhamaji, mifumo ya kijamii, na mipangilio ya taasisi zinazoongoza rasilimali za watuwengi kwa pamoja. Mila na itikadi miongoni wa jamii za ufugaji, na wanyamapori, wote hutegemea mwingiliano ya kijamii na kiikolojia, ambayo inayotishiwa na ugavi wa ardhi, kutengwa na uharibifu. Tunaonyesha kwamba maeneo mengi ya ardhi yaliyo wazi yaweza kudumishwa kutumia njia ya uhifadhi mazingra ambayo inanzia ndani ya matamanio ya jamii, ambayo inasisitiza uhusiano kati ya riziki, tija, ufanisi, na ujasiri katika uchumi wa ufugaji, na pili, faida zinginezo zitokanazo na biashara zinazotegemea wanyamapori. Kupanua kiwango kutoka kwa mfumo mmoja wa ikolojia, hadi kwa mifumo nyingi, inafaidi jamii za wafugaji kwa kujenga ujasiri na fursa mpya za kiuchumi. Katika mchakato huo, kiwango kilichopanuliwa huhifadhi bianuwai ya kikanda pamoja na idadi kubwa ya wanyamapori, walanyasi na walanyama, ambao inashikiria utendakazi wa ikolojia pamoja na kumarisha chumi muhimu ya utalii kwenye eneo ya mipaka ya Kenya na nchi jirani ya Tanzania. Njia hii ya, “kuanzia ndani kuelekea nje\" kakita uhifadhi wa wanyamapori na bianuwai, hutofautiana kutoka mahali moja hadi nyingine, kulingana na ujuzi ulioko mtaani na mipango ya utawala isiyo rasmi na huzuia unyanyapaa unaotokana na uhifadhi wa wanyamapori ambao unaendeshwa na mashirika ya nje. Njia hii inayozingatia binadamu, huimarisha afya ya ardhi, uunganisho wa anga na pia inahimiza mipangilio ya utawala ya ngazi tofauti iliyowekwa kwenye mamlaka kuu ya kikanda na ya kitaifa. A free Plain Language Summary can be found within the Supporting Information of this article. A free Plain Language Summary can be found within the Supporting Information of this article.

The Kavango‐Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area (KaZa TFCA) is home to one of the largest populations of African savanna elephants (approximately 227,000), a species iconic for ecological balance but also a major driver of human–elephant conflict (HEC). This study investigates how spatial and socio‐economic factors shape household perceptions and tolerance towards elephants in the Zimbabwean part of KaZa TFCA. Using a survey sample of 668 households experiencing HEC, we analysed the impact of proximity to forests, protected areas and water points on conflict intensity and community responses. Our findings reveal that households closer to these conflict‐prone features experience higher exposure to elephants, resulting in significant tangible costs, such as crop loss and property damage, and increased emotional stress. Among these features, proximity to forests emerged as the strongest predictor of HEC, followed by protected areas, with water points having a lesser influence. Distance to these features was found to mediate tolerance through its effects on tangible costs, intangible benefits and mitigation efforts. Intangible benefits, including an appreciation of elephants' ecological roles and aesthetic value, emerged as the strongest determinants of tolerance, highlighting the importance of nurturing positive perceptions. However, the absence of tangible benefits, such as tourism revenue or financial incentives, coupled with the tangible costs of living alongside elephants, such as crop damage, significantly undermine household tolerance. The study stresses the need for spatially informed mitigation strategies, including participatory spatial planning, early‐warning systems and livelihood diversification through community‐based conservation initiatives. Establishing community conservancies in high‐conflict wards could provide tangible benefits while empowering communities to engage in wildlife management. These findings highlight the importance of integrating conservation objectives with the socio‐economic realities of local communities, offering pathways for coexistence in biodiversity hotspots like KaZa TFCA. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.

The pelagic thresher shark Alopias pelagicus is an Evolutionarily Distinct and Globally Endangered species primarily threatened by overfishing. Indonesia is the world's largest shark fishing nation, and in Alor Island, thresher sharks have been a primary target for small-scale fishing communities for decades, sustaining subsistence livelihoods and serving as a protein source. With thresher shark populations continuously declining, there is a need for conservation measures to reduce shark mortality from fishing, while also securing the well-being of coastal communities. This study presents results and lessons learnt from a multi-faceted effort to reduce communities’ dependence on this Endangered shark species through a livelihood-based intervention complemented by collaborative species management and community outreach. Using a theory-based and statistical research design, we describe the approach taken in our intervention and its conservation outcomes. Total thresher shark catches were 91% lower among fishers who participated in our intervention compared to non-participants. Participating fishers also experienced increases in their income, in some cases by up to 525% relative to the income before the intervention. Occasional violations and challenges in the form of socio-political conflicts also occurred, yet these incidents acted as catalysts for regulatory change and reinforced stakeholder collaboration. This suggests overall positive outcomes and the potential for continued social change in shark conservation in the region over the long term. Our findings outline some generalizable lessons learnt for designing and implementing bottom-up livelihood-based interventions in other contexts.

Inclusive conservation approaches that effectively conserve biodiversity while improving human well-being are gaining traction in the face of the sixth mass extinction of biodiversity. Despite much theorization on the governance of inclusive conservation, empirical research on its practical implementation is urgently needed. Here, using a correlation network analysis and drawing on empirical results from 263 sites described on the web platform of the PANORAMA initiative (IUCN), we inductively identified global clusters of conservation outcomes in protected and conserved areas. These clusters represent five conservation foci or archetypes, namely (i) community-based conservation, (ii) sustainable management, (iii) conflict resolution, (iv) multi-level and co-governance, and (v) environmental protection and nature’s contribution to people. Our empirical approach further revealed that some dimensions of inclusive conservation are crucial as leverage points to manage protected areas related to these clusters successfully, namely improvements in the socio-cultural context and social cohesion, enhancing the status and participation of youth, women, and minorities, improved human health, empowerment of local communities, or reestablishment of dialogue and trust. We highlight inclusive interventions such as education and capacity building, development of alliances and partnerships, and enabling sustainable livelihoods, or governance arrangements led by Indigenous peoples and local communities or private actors, as levers to promote positive transformations in the social-ecological systems of protected areas. We argue that although some of the leverage points we identified are less targeted in current protected area management, they can represent powerful areas of intervention to enhance social and ecological outcomes in protected areas.

Stakeholders are increasingly involved in species conservation. We sought to understand what features of a participatory conservation program are associated with its ecological and social outcomes. We conducted a case study of the management of invasive vertebrates in Australia. Invasive vertebrates are a substantial threat to Australia's native species, and stakeholder participation in their management is often necessary for their control. First, we identified potential influences on the ecological and social outcomes of species conservation programs from the literature. We used this information to devise an interview questionnaire, which we administered to managers of 34 participatory invasive-vertebrate programs. Effects of invasive species were related to program initiator (agency or citizen), reasons for use of a participatory approach, and stakeholder composition. Program initiator was also related to the participation methods used, level of governance (i.e., governed by an agency or citizens), changes in stakeholder interactions, and changes in abundance of invasive species. Ecological and social outcomes were related to changes in abundance of invasive species and stakeholder satisfaction. We identified relations between changes in the number of participants, stakeholder satisfaction, and occurrence of conflict. Potential ways to achieve ecological and social goals include provision of governmental support (e.g., funding) to stakeholders and minimization of gaps in representation of stakeholder groups or individuals to, for example, increase conflict mitigation. Our findings provide guidance for increasing the probability of achieving ecological and social objectives in management of invasive vertebrates and may be applicable to other participatory conservation programs. Los grupos de interés participan cada vez más en la conservación de especies. Tratamos de entender las características de un programa de conservación participativa que están asociadas con sus resultados ecológicos y sociales. Realizamos un estudio de caso del manejo de vertebrados invasores en Australia. Los vertebrados invasores son una amenaza sustancial para las especies nativas de Australia, y la participación de grupos de interés en el manejo es necesaria para su control. Primero, identificamos literatura sobre las influencias potenciales de los resultados ecológicos y sociales de los programas de conservación de especies. Utilizamos esta información para diseñar un cuestionario, que fue aplicado a manejadores de 34 programas participativos de vertebrados invasores. Los efectos de las especies invasoras se relacionaron con el iniciador del programa (agencia o ciudadano), razones para el uso de un método participativo y composición de los grupos de interés. El iniciador del programa también se relacionó con los métodos de participación utilizados, el nivel de gobernanza (i.e., gobernado por una agencia o ciudadanos), cambios en las interacciones de los grupos de interés y cambios en la abundancia de especies invasoras. Los resultados ecológicos y sociales se relacionaron con cambios en la abundancia de especies invasoras y satisfacción de los grupos de interés. Identificamos relaciones entre cambios en el número de participantes, la satisfacción de los grupos de interés y la ocurrencia de conflictos. Las formas potenciales para alcanzar metas ecológicas y sociales incluyen el soporte gubernamental (e.g., financiamiento) para los grupos de interés y la minimización de vacíos en la representación de grupos o individuos interesados para, por ejemplo, incrementar la mitigación de conflictos. Nuestros resultados proporcionan directrices para incrementar la probabilidad de alcanzar objetivos ecológicos y sociales en el manejo de especies invasoras y pueden ser aplicadas a otros programas de conservación participativos.

The overexploitation of biological resources severely threatens many species, requiring urgent and effective conservation interventions. Such interventions sometimes require governance structures that incorporate pluralist perspectives and collaborative decision‐making, especially in complex, multi‐faceted and multi‐scale issues like the illegal trade in pangolins. We used Q‐methodology to provide evidence to inform interventions for pangolin conservation in south‐east Nigeria. We sampled stakeholder groups associated with pangolin use and protection, including hunters, wild meat traders and Nigeria Customs Service employees, to elicit their opinion and knowledge on the use and perceptions of pangolins and their preferences for interventions to reduce pangolin decline. We found that the local consumption of pangolin meat as food is the primary driver of poaching in the region. This contradicts popular opinions that pangolins are specifically targeted for international trade, revealing an opportunity for site‐level behaviour change interventions. The different stakeholder groups identified awareness‐raising campaigns, law enforcement, community stewardship programs and ecotourism as preferred interventions, whose effectiveness we attempted to assess using reported case studies. We observed different perspectives between people associated with pangolin poaching and use (predominantly those living around pangolin habitats, including hunters and wild meat traders) and those working to protect them (such as conservation organisations and Nigeria Customs Service employees). For example, the first group supported community stewardship programs, while the latter preferred awareness‐raising and law enforcement efforts. This divergence in perspectives underpins the need for a combination of targeted interventions at the site level to engage different stakeholders while highlighting the potential challenges to collaborative decision‐making for species threatened by illegal wildlife trade. Policy implications. Our results stress the importance of targeted and context‐specific conservation interventions. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.

Biodiversity conservation strategies are increasingly focused on regions outside national protected areas, where animals face numerous anthropogenic threats and must coexist with human settlements, livestock, and agriculture. The effects of these potential threats are not always clear, but they could have profound implications for population viability. We used savannah elephants (Loxodonta africana) as a case study to assess the physiological stress associated with living in a human-livestock-dominated landscape. We collected samples over two 3-month periods in 2007 and 2008. We used fecal DNA to identify 96 individual elephants in a community conservation area (CCA) and measured fecal glucocorticoid metabolite (FGM) concentrations as a proxy for stress. The CCA is community Maasai land managed for livestock and wildlife. We compared the FGM concentrations from the CCA to FGM concentrations of 40 elephants in Amboseli National Park and 32 elephants in the Maasai Mara National Reserve, where human settlements and intense livestock grazing were absent. In the CCA, we found no significant individual differences in FGM concentrations among the elephants in 2007 (p = 0.312) or 2008 (p = 0.412) and no difference between years (p = 0.616). The elephants in the CCA had similar FGM concentrations to the Maasai Mara population, but Amboseli elephants had significantly lower FGM concentrations than those in either Maasai Mara or the CCA (Tukey pairwise test, p < 0.001), due primarily to females excreting significantly lower FGM relative to males (p = 0.025). In the CCA, there was no relation among female group size, average pairwise group relatedness, and average group FGM concentration. We found no clear evidence of chronic stress in elephants living on CCA communal land, which is encouraging for conservation strategies promoting the protection of animals living outside protected areas. Las estrategias de conservación se enfocan cada vez más hacia regiones fuera de áreas nacionales protegidas, donde los animales enfrentan numerosas amenazas antropogénicas y deben coexistir con asentamientos humanos, ganado y agricultura. Los efectos de esas amenazas potenciales no siempre son claros, pero podrían tener implicaciones profundas para la viabilidad poblacional. Utilizamos elefantes africanos (Loxodonta africana) como un estudio de caso para evaluar el estrés fisiológico asociado con vivir en un paisaje dominado por humanos y ganado. Recolectamos muestras en 2 períodos de 3 meses en 2007 y 2008. Utilizamos ADN fecal para identificar a 96 elefantes individuales en un área de conservación comunitaria (ACC) y medimos las concentraciones del metabolito glucocorticoide fecal (MGF) como un indicador de estrés. El ACC es tierra Maasai comunitaria manejada para ganado y vida silvestres. Comparamos las concentraciones de MGF en el ACC con las concentraciones de MGF de 40 elefantes del Parque Nacional Amboseli y 32 elefantes de la Reserva Nacional Maasai Mara, donde no hay asentamientos humanos ni pastoreo intensivo. En el ACC, no encontramos diferencias individuales significativas en las concentraciones de MGF entre los elefantes en 2007 (p = 0.312) ni 2008 (p = 0.412) ni entre años (p = 0.616). Los elefantes en el ACC tuvieron concentraciones similares de MGF a la población de Maasai Mara, pero los elefantes de Amboseli tuvieron concentraciones de MGF significativamente menores que las de Maasai Mara o el ACC. (prueba pareada de Tukey, p < 0.001), debido principalmente a que las hembras excretan significativamente menos MGF que los machos (p = 0.025). En el ACC, no hubo relación entre el tamaño del grupo de hembras, la similitud promedio de grupos pareados, ni la concentración de MGF promedio del grupo. No encontramos evidencias claras de estrés crónico en elefantes viviendo en el ACC, lo cual es alentador para las estrategias de conservación que promueven la protección de animales que viven fuera de áreas protegidas.