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Mosquitoborne diseases are a growing threat to public health worldwide. Human dirofilariasis, caused by the nematode Dirofilaria repens and transmitted by mosquitoes from various genera, has recently expanded into new areas of Europe. In this article, we report molecularly confirmed autochthonous human D. repens infections in Estonia.

We describe an infection caused by Dirofilaria repens nematodes in California, USA. A firm nodule developed after an insect bite on a patient's eyelid. Excision with morphologic and molecular analysis confirmed D. repens infection. Our findings confirm the necessity of both molecular and histological studies to identify nematode infections.

Background For long time, canine leishmaniosis (CanL) was considered endemic in the southern, central, and insular regions of Italy, whereas heartworm disease (HW) caused by Dirofilaria immitis was considered endemic in the northern region and in the swampy Po Valley. Following the reports of new foci of both diseases, in this study we update the distribution patterns and occurrence of new foci of CanL and HW discussing the main drivers for the changes in the epidemiology of these two important zoonotic canine vector-borne diseases. Methods Based on the statistical analyses of serological assays ( n = 90,633) on L. infantum exposure and D. immitis infection performed by two reference diagnostic centres in Italy over a ten-year period (2009–2019) irrespective of the anamnesis of dogs. The distribution patterns of both parasites are herein presented along with the occurrence of new foci. Results Results highlighted the changing distribution patterns of L. infantum vs D. immitis infection in Italy. CanL is endemic in some areas of northern regions and HW has endemic foci in central and southern regions and islands. Significant differences in L. infantum exposure and HW infection prevalence among the study macroareas were detected. The overall results of the positive tested samples were 28.2% in southern Italy and islands, 29.6% in central Italy and 21.6% in northern Italy for L. infantum and 2.83% in northern Italy, 7.75% in central Italy and 4.97% in southern Italy and islands for HW. HW positivity significantly varied over years ( χ 2 = 108.401, df = 10, P < 0.0001), gradually increasing from 0.77% in 2009 to 8.47% in 2016–2017. Conclusions New potential epidemiological scenarios are discussed according to a range of factors (e.g. environmental modifications, occurrence of competent insect vectors, transportation of infected animals to non-endemic areas, chemoprophylaxis or vector preventative measures), which may affect the current distribution. Overall, the results advocate for epidemiological surveillance programmes, more focussed preventative and control measures even in areas where few or no cases of both diseases have been diagnosed.

Leishmaniasis and dirofilariasis are significant emerging zoonotic diseases. This study aimed to assess the prevalence of single and co-infections involving Leishmania donovani , Dirofilaria sp. “hongkongensis”, and Wolbachia spp. among dogs from the Kani tribal settlements of Western Ghats, Kerala. In July 2023, blood samples from 75 dogs were collected and analyzed using microscopy, serology, and molecular diagnostics. Molecular analysis using kDNA-PCR and ITS1 PCR identified leishmaniasis in 39 out of 75 dog samples (52.0% [95% CI, 40.2 to 63.7], with phylogenetic analysis confirming the species as L. donovani . Additionally, 19 out of 75 dog samples (25.3% [95% CI, 16.0 to 36.7]) produced a ~ 720 bp band for nematode-specific COI amplification, which was confirmed as Dirofilaria sp. “hongkongensis”. Among the 19 Dirofilaria -positive samples, 14 (73.7% [95% CI, 48.8 to 90.9]) tested positive for Wolbachia using the wsp primer. Among the 75 dogs screened, 12 (16% [95% CI, 08.6 to 26.3]) were co-infected with Leishmania and Dirofilaria , while 9 (12% [95% CI, 05.6 to 21.6]) were co-infected with all three parasites: L. donovani , Dirofilaria sp. “hongkongensis”, and Wolbachia spp. The findings suggest that Kerala is gradually becoming more vulnerable to zoonoses like leishmaniasis and dirofilariasis emphasizing the need for prompt intervention and prevention measures. These results underscore the critical need for continued development of multi-pathogen detection methods, not only in regions where multiple diseases are endemic but also in areas where such diseases may emerge.

Background A recent American Heartworm Society (AHS) survey on the incidence of adult heartworm infections in dogs in the United States of America showed a 21.7% increase in the average cases per veterinary clinic from 2013 to 2016. The analysis reported here was performed to see if heartworm testing results available via the Companion Animal Parasite Council (CAPC) aligned with the AHS survey and whether changes in heartworm preventive dispensing accounts for the increased incidence. The resistance of Dirofilaria immitis to macrocyclic lactones (MLs) has been previously reported. Methods An analysis of 7–9 million heartworm antigen tests reported annually to the Companion Animal Parasite Council (CAPC) from 2013 to 2016 was conducted and compared to the 2016 AHS survey. A state-by-state analysis across the southeastern USA was also performed. National heartworm preventive dispensing data were obtained from Vetstreet LLC and analyzed. All oral, topical and injectable heartworm preventives were included in this analysis, with injectable moxidectin counting as six doses. Results Positive antigen tests increased by 15.28% from 2013 to 2016, similar to the 21.7% increase reported by the AHS survey. Incidence in the southeastern USA increased by17.9% while the rest of USA incidence increased by 11.4%. State-by-state analysis across the southeastern USA revealed an increased positive test frequency greater than 10% in 9 of 12 states evaluated. During this time, the overall proportion of dogs receiving heartworm prophylaxis remained relatively unchanged. Approximately 2/3 of the dogs in the USA received no heartworm prevention each year. Conclusion These CAPC data show the rate of positive heartworm tests increasing significantly ( P  <  0.0001) in the USA from 2013 to 2016, with a higher rate of increase in the southeastern USA than nationally. Only 1/3 of dogs in the USA were dispensed one or more doses of heartworm prevention annually by veterinarians, averaging 8.6 monthly doses/year. Veterinarians and pet owners should work together to follow CAPC and AHS guidelines to protect dogs from infection with D. immitis . Lack of preventive use and the emergence of heartworm resistance to MLs could both be impacting the increased rate of positive heartworm tests in dogs.

Testicular Dirofilaria repens infection was identified and confirmed by sequence analysis in a child in northeastern Italy. Because human dirofilariasis is emerging in southern and eastern Europe, this parasitic infection should be considered in the differential diagnosis of scrotal swelling in disease-endemic countries to avoid unnecessary interventions, such as orchiectomy.

Dirofilariasis is a fast-spreading disease of dogs and humans in Europe. We investigated whether  Dirofilaria spp. have spread northwards in Europe, invading the Baltic countries. Altogether, 424 blood samples were collected from eight countries in the period 2017–2019, including 227 samples from sled dogs and 197 samples from other dogs. PCR amplification and sequencing were conducted employing three genetic markers (mitochondrial [mt] 12S rDNA, mt cytochrome c oxidase subunit I [COI] gene and mt dehydrogenase subunit I [NAD1] gene). The SNAP test (IDEXX) for detection of D. immitis infections was also implemented. The DNA of D. repens was detected in 59 of 424 dogs (prevalence 13.9%). D. repens was found in sled dogs from Lithuania, Latvia, Poland and Belarus. Only one dog from Estonia was infected, apparently an imported case. The highest prevalence was recorded in Lithuania (38%). Among pet dogs from the Ukraine, six dogs tested positive (3.8%). Our study has revealed a high prevalence of D. repens infections in Lithuania and Latvia, but no evidence for spread of the heartworm D. immitis . We conclude that sled dog kennels constitute hot spots for D. repens transmission.

On Linosa Island, Italy, Dirofilaria immitis infection has been hyperendemic in dogs and seroprevalent among islanders. In 2020, we implemented a heartworm disease elimination program on Linosa Island. Of 54 dogs tested for D. immitis antigen and microfilariae, 28 had positive results and received treatment with oral doxycycline twice daily for 4 weeks plus topical imidacloprid/moxidectin monthly for 12 months. The 26 dogs with negative results received monthly topical imidacloprid/moxidectin as preventive. During month 1, the number of microfilaremic dogs was reduced by 76.5%. From month 2 on, all animals were microfilariae negative, and during months 3 to 9, the number of antigen-positive dogs decreased progressively. Treatment of positive dogs coupled with chemoprophylaxis for noninfected dogs was effective, protecting them from new infections. The elimination program reduced the risk for human infection, representing a One Health paradigm. Monitoring and chemoprophylaxis are advocated to maintain the status of heartworm disease-free area.

A retrospective study based on cases of canine dirofilariosis presented to the University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna or diagnosed by private practitioners throughout Austria, from 1998 to 2018 was conducted to investigate the long-term development and current state of canine dirofilarial infections in Austria. Included in this study were 146 dogs which were tested positive for D. immitis and/or D. repens. The most commonly used diagnostic methods and the probable geographical origins of the infections were evaluated and the treatment protocols applied were compared with each other and with the literature. The results show that most infections were found due to screening for common travel infections using antigen-ELISA or PCR-testing, or by the incidental finding of microfilariae. Remarkably, only 24.3% of all cases presented showed clinical signs indicating canine dirofilariosis. Regarding the origin and travel history of the dogs, thirteen different countries could be identified. The three treatment protocols used showed a similar outcome after 8 months of treatment and minor side effects, which is consistent with the literature. An alarming increase in reported infections with both D. immitis and D. repens in Austria was noted since 2014. The number of documented cases had almost tripled by 2018, raising severe concerns about the threat of it becoming endemic in Austria. Therefore, the existing recommendations in current guidelines regarding canine dirofilariosis should be widely publicised and more strictly enforced. Prophylactic measures for dogs travelling abroad and diagnostic and therapeutic strategies for dogs imported from endemic countries should be obligatorily established throughout Europe, to reduce the risk of further spread of canine filarial infections to non-endemic regions.

PurposeSri Lanka has reported the highest prevalence of human dirofilariasis cases in Asia. Thus far, Dirofilaria repens is the only reported Dirofilaria species that affect humans, dogs, and cats in Sri Lanka. Therefore, this systematic review was carried out to analyse the studies performed on dirofilariasis in Sri Lanka.MethodsPeer-reviewed articles were searched on dirofilariasis published on Google Scholar, PubMed, Cochrane, and ResearchGate from January to March 2021. Articles were selected using inclusion and exclusion criteria. Three reviewers assessed the studies and extracted data independently to minimize the risk of bias. Extracted data were compiled, and then the results were compared and discussed in this systematic review.ResultsTwenty-five studies performed in Sri Lanka were analysed, and high prevalence areas, frequent clinical presentations, diagnostic methods, reservoir hosts, and treatment were identified. More than 173 cases of human dirofilariasis caused by D. repens were reported from 1962 to 2020 in 20 districts among 25 investigated. The highest number of cases (n = 80) was recorded during 2010–2012 period. Canine and feline dirofilariasis are reported countrywide, and a large number of potential mosquito breeding sites could be seen in Sri Lanka.ConclusionsThe number of reported cases of human dirofilariasis has been varied from 1962 to 2020. The highest number of cases has reported in 2010–2012, and then the number of cases has dropped. This may be due to underreporting. Thus, awareness of Dirofilaria repens infection in humans, control measures in endemic areas and further research on dirofilariasis in other districts of Sri Lanka are crucial.