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Despite a long-standing awareness of academic language as a pedagogically relevant research area, the construct of academic-language proficiency, understood as a more comprehensive set of skills than just academic vocabulary, has remained vaguely specified. In this study, we explore a more inclusive operationalization of an academic-language proficiency construct, core academic-language skills (CALS). CALS refers to a constellation of highutility language skills hypothesized to support reading comprehension across school content areas. Using the Core Academic Language Skills Instrument (CALS-1), a theoretically grounded and psychometrically robust innovative tool, we first examined the variability in students' CALS by grade, English proficiency designation, and socioeconomic status (SES). Then, we examined the contribution of CALS to reading comprehension using academic vocabulary knowledge, word reading fluency, and sociodemographic factors as covariates. A linguistically and socioeconomically diverse cross-sectional sample of 218 students (grades 4-6) participated in four assessments: the CALS-1, a standardized reading comprehension assessment (Gates-MacGinitie Reading Test), an academic vocabulary test (Vocabulary Association Test), and a word reading fluency test (Test of Silent Word Reading Fluency). General linear model analysis of variance revealed that CALS differed significantly by grade, English-proficiency designation, and SES, with students in higher grades, English-proficient students, and those from higher SES backgrounds displaying higher scores, on average. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses identified CALS as an independent predictor of reading comprehension, even after controlling for academic vocabulary knowledge, word reading fluency, and sociodemographic factors. By specifying a set of language skills associated with reading comprehension, this study advances our understanding of school-relevant language skills, making them more visible for researchers and educators.

This article addresses approaches to differentiating instruction to meet the needs of students whose literacy needs, interests, and strengths vary widely. This article was designed to support classroom teachers who understand the importance of differentiating instruction, but are unsure of how best to design and implement differentiation within the parameters of the classroom. The article begins by defining differentiated instruction and discussing its importance, including the role of differentiation with respect to diversity and with respect to Response to Intervention (RTI). The remainder of the article describes in detail two examples of differentiated instruction in classroom contexts. Each example is followed by a discussion of the research and decision‐making underlying the teacher's approach to differentiation. The article concludes with common characteristics of effective differentiation.

The present study examined the roles of different dimensions of syntactic skills in predicting reading comprehension within and across two languages with contrasting structural properties: Chinese and English. A total of 413 young Cantonese-English bilingual students in Hong Kong (202 first graders and 211 third graders) were tested on word order skill, morphosyntactic skill, and reading comprehension in both L1 and L2. Hierarchical regressions showed that after partialing out the effects of age, nonverbal intelligence, working memory, oral vocabulary, and word reading, word order skill was more predictive of reading comprehension in both L1 and L2 in grade 1 than morphosyntactic skill. In grade 3, morphosyntactic skill emerged to be an equally and even a more important skill than word order skill in L1 and L2 reading, respectively. In both age cohorts, L1 syntactic skills cross-linguistically predicted L2 reading comprehension even when age, oral language, and general cognitive skills were statistically controlled. Statistical equation modeling mediation analyses revealed that this syntactic transfer from L1 to L2 was mediated by L2 syntactic skills but not L1 reading comprehension. When we further investigated the transfer of individual syntactic skills, word order skill appeared to be more transferable than morphosyntactic skill early in grade 1, in support of the transfer facilitation model. The findings suggest that young bilingual students may draw on the correspondence between L1 and L2 syntax to support their L2 learning, hence informing educators of issues and strategies that they should take note of in designing an effective L2 learning program.

Although English oral language proficiency in the primary grades is critical to the literacy development of English learners (ELs), we know little about how to foster these skills. This study examined a yearlong K-2 drama and creative movement intervention. A randomized experimental design (N = 5,240) was used to address two research questions: (1) Did participating ELs perform better on oral language assessments than those who did not receive the intervention? (2) Was the impact of the program moderated by students' baseline English-language skills? Student speaking and listening skills were measured using the California English Language Development Test. The treatment group (N = 902) outperformed controls (N = 4,338) on speaking assessments. ELs with the most limited English speaking abilities at baseline benefited most from the program.

Through examination of one recently manufactured term for language learners (Long-term English Learners) and review of a century of MLJ articles, we examine varying 'socioinstitutional' conceptualizations of second/foreign/heritage language learners as shaped by educational institutions and related stakeholders over time, given evolving understandings of the practice of language teaching that are directly related to theoretical, political, and institutional discourses. We focus very specifically on constructions of language learners that reflect different views and definitions of language learning, language acquisition/development, and ultimate attainment, examining the intersections of these definitions with formalized language instruction as a particularly significant force for learner categorizations. We argue that formalized language instruction both creates and requires categorizations/classifications of learners that are not neutral and that often have life-impacting consequences for individuals. These constructions of learners, moreover, are shaped by a number of interacting and intersecting mechanisms, including theoretical perspectives, educational policies, informing disciplines, instructional materials, pedagogical traditions, and testing and accountability requirements.

Emergent bilingual students draw on their linguistic repertoires, moving fluidly between named languages and varieties to meet communicative ends. However, these translanguaging abilities are often not supported in English‐dominant school settings. The author proposes six design principles that educators can use to create instructional strategies that support emergent bilinguals’ translanguaging in the classroom. The author then describes an instructional activity that was created and implemented following the design principles. During this activity, second‐grade emergent bilingual students used tablets to record and share multilingual e‐books. As a result, not only were students’ translanguaging abilities supported, but students were also able to create bilingual written texts and develop strategies to effectively translate for one another.

Vocabulary instruction is pivotal to literacy development. While extensive research has been conducted, few studies have examined how research translates into practice and how theory informs it. This study addresses this gap by identifying theories guiding vocabulary instruction in leading practitioner-oriented journals in the field, assessing trends and practices, and examining shifts over the past decade. The systematic review critically extends the scope of existing research in two directions. First, it focuses on English learners (ELs), a growing K-12 population globally. Second, literacy theories were utilized to identify the frameworks that guided vocabulary instruction for ELs. The results reveal the predominance of instructional practices guided by schema and psycholinguistic theories, followed by social constructivism and sociocultural theories. Furthermore, the findings underscore the importance of adapting vocabulary instructional practices to meet the developmental needs of ELs at different grade levels.

This study reports on Mexican‐origin university students' perceptions of their K–12 literacy experiences and preparation for college‐level reading. Participants were first‐generation college students from Spanish‐dominant homes enrolled in a reading‐intensive course at a four‐year Hispanic‐serving institution. The study was conducted as part of an initiative to assist predominantly low‐income, Latino/Hispanic students enrolled in entry‐level reading‐intensive courses, with the goal of improving postsecondary persistence. Data consisted of individual interviews and participants' language and literacy autobiographies and were analyzed from an ecology‐of‐literacy perspective. Findings included contrasts between home and school literacy forms and practices, differences between high school and college as learning environments, linguistic discrimination experienced at school, and negative ideologies associated with Spanish as a barrier to the development of strong literacy skills in English. Suggestions are offered for improving academic literacy instruction for Mexican‐origin youths.

Multilingual students arrive in classrooms with rich language knowledge and funds of knowledge. Educators must recognize that emergent bilinguals speak multiple languages. They have one unitary language system; their language is bilingualism. Whether in a monolingual classroom setting or a multilingual setting, when working with emergent bilinguals, it is important that all of the students’ linguistic resources are welcomed into the classroom. The author describes how, as a first‐grade dual‐language (Spanish–English) teacher, she used children's literature and translanguaging to support her emergent bilinguals in using all of their linguistic resources to make meaning and build a linguistically sustaining space. The use of the text created a space for the teacher to model translanguaging and for the students to use all of their linguistic resources.

The primary aim of this study was to explore the relationship between teachers' instruction and students' vocabulary and comprehension in grades 3-5. The secondary aim of this study was to investigate whether this relationship differed for English monolingual and Spanish-English bilingual students. To meet these aims, we observed and recorded reading/language arts instruction in 33 classrooms at three points during an academic year, and we assessed 274 students on vocabulary and comprehension at the beginning and end of the year. Using field notes and student utterances to understand the context, we coded teacher utterances (e.g., questions, comments, prompts) as vocabulary instruction, comprehension instruction, other instruction, or noninstruction. We then identified five types of vocabulary-related instruction and five types of comprehension-related instruction. Using latent difference modeling, we investigated how the frequency of different types of instruction was associated with change in students' vocabulary and comprehension across the school year. Teachers' instruction related to definitions, word relations, and morphosyntax was positively associated with change in vocabulary; teachers' instruction related to application across contexts and literal comprehension was negatively associated with change in vocabulary; and teachers' instruction related to inferential comprehension was positively associated with change in comprehension. The findings also revealed an interaction between language status and teachers' instruction, such that instruction that attended to comprehension strategies was associated with greater positive change in comprehension for bilingual (but not for monolingual) students.