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In an effort to improve the quality of schools, governments around the world have dramatically increased the resources devoted to them. By concentrating on inputs and ignoring the incentives within schools, the resources have yielded little in the way of general improvement in student achievement. This paper provides a review of the US and international evidence on the effectiveness of such input policies. It then contrasts the impact of resources with that of variations in teacher quality that are not systematically related to school resources. Finally, alternative performance incentive policies are described.

This paper considers methods for modelling the production function for cognitive achievement in a way that captures theoretical notions that child development is a cumulative process depending on the history of family and school inputs and on innate ability. It develops a general modelling framework that accommodates many of the estimating equations used in the literatures. It considers different ways of addressing data limitations, and it makes precise the identifying assumptions needed to justify alternative approaches. Commonly used specifications are shown to place restrictive assumptions on the production technology. Ways of testing modelling assumptions and of relaxing them are discussed.

This paper examines evidence on the effect of class size on student achievement. First, it is shown that results of quantitative summaries of the literature, such as Hanushek (1997), depend critically on whether studies are accorded equal weight. When studies are given equal weight, resources are systematically related to student achievement. When weights are in proportion to their number of estimates, resources and achievements are not systematically related. Second, a cost-benefit analysis of class size reduction is performed. Results of the Tennessee STAR class-size experiment suggest that the internal rate of return from reducing class size from 22 to 15 students is around 6%.

Smartphone fitness apps are considered promising tools for promoting physical activity and health. However, it is unclear which user-perceived factors and app features encourage users to download apps with the intention of being physically active. Building on the second version of the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology, this study aims to examine the association of the seven determinants of the second version of the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology with the app usage intentions of the individuals and their behavioral intentions of being physically active as well as the moderating effects of different smartphone fitness app features (ie, education, motivation, and gamification related) and individual differences (ie, age, gender, and experience) on these intentions. Data from 839 US residents who reported having used at least one smartphone fitness app were collected via a web-based survey. A confirmatory factor analysis was performed, and path modeling was used to test the hypotheses and explore the influence of moderators on structural relationships. The determinants explain 76% of the variance in the behavioral intention to use fitness apps. Habit (β=.42; P<.001), performance expectancy (β=.36; P<.001), facilitating conditions (β=.15; P<.001), price value (β=.13; P<.001), and effort expectancy (β=.09; P=.04) were positively related to behavioral intention to use fitness apps, whereas social influence and hedonic motivation were nonsignificant predictors. Behavioral intentions to use fitness apps were positively related to intentions of being physically active (β=.12; P<.001; R =0.02). Education-related app features moderated the association between performance expectancy and habit and app usage intentions; motivation-related features moderated the association of performance expectancy, facilitating conditions, and habit with usage intentions; and gamification-related features moderated the association between hedonic motivation and usage intentions. Age moderated the association between effort expectancy and usage intentions, and gender moderated the association between performance expectancy and habit and usage intentions. User experience was a nonsignificant moderator. Follow-up tests were used to describe the nature of significant interaction effects. This study identifies the drivers of the use of fitness apps. Smartphone app features should be designed to increase the likelihood of app usage, and hence physical activity, by supporting users in achieving their goals and facilitating habit formation. Target group-specific preferences for education-, motivation-, and gamification-related app features, as well as age and gender differences, should be considered. Performance expectancy had a high predictive power for intended usage for male (vs female) users who appreciated motivation-related features. Thus, apps targeting these user groups should focus on goal achievement-related features (eg, goal setting and monitoring). Future research could examine the mechanisms of these moderation effects and their long-term influence on physical activity.

The time that children spend in school varies across countries. Do these differences explain international gaps in pupils' academic achievements? In this article I estimate the effects of instructional time on students' achievement using PISA 2006 data, which include data samples from over 50 countries. I find that instructional time has a positive and significant effect on test scores, and that the effect is much lower in developing countries. Evidence also suggests that the productivity of instructional time is higher in countries which implemented school accountability measures or that gave schools autonomy in budgetary decisions and in hiring/firing teachers.

It seems likely the magnitude of any causal link between achievement and instruction time depends upon the quality of instruction, the classroom environment and the rate that students translate classroom time into added knowledge. In this article, we use panel data methods to investigate instruction time effects in the 2009 Programme for International Student Assessment data. The empirical analysis shows that achievement increases with instruction time and that the increase varies by both the amount of time and the classroom environment. The results indicate that school circumstances are important determinants of the benefits and desirability of increased instruction time.

We use micro data for England and Wales to examine the effects of class size on the decision to stay on in full time schooling at 16 and on wages later in life. We find that class size has a sizeable and significant effect on the decision to stay on. This finding is very robust. Wage equations show the effect of staying on is significantly positive for wages. Combining this with the effect of class size on the staying on decision, reveals that class size significantly affects future wages. Reduced form models lead to much less accurate and insignificant estimates.

Urban communities are a concentrated gathering place for urban resident. The healthy and orderly development of urban communities is inseparable from the healthy and effective development of Education with Chinese Feature in urban communities. This article uses a combination of multiple research methods to view the smart city. The path of community Education with Chinese Feature is analyzed and combined with reality, the problems and reasons existing in the current path of community Education with Chinese Feature are pointed out, these problems and reasons are analyzed, and relevant solutions are proposed. The research in this paper finds that there are many problems in the path of Education with Chinese Feature in the community from the perspective of smart cities. The reasons for these problems are also diverse. Therefore, this article proposes some relevant solutions. I hope that the research in this paper can give the community Education with Chinese Feature provides some references.

The Deep-Integration of Education with Chinese feature and IT is an important strategy for the development of higher education in China, and it is also an important means to improve the ideological and moral quality and comprehensive quality of college students. The development of modern IT has provided huge advantages and new development ideas for Education with Chinese feature in colleges and universities. Further promoting the Deep-Integration of Education with Chinese feature and IT has far-reaching significance for deepening the reform and development of Education with Chinese feature. Therefore, this paper brings forward the research on the way of Deep-Integration of modern IT and Education with Chinese feature. This paper uses the literature research method and a combination of other methods to study the Deep-Integration of modern IT and Education with Chinese feature. The research in this paper finds that to achieve the Deep-Integration of modern IT and Education with Chinese feature, the following points must be achieved: firstly, an intelligent and safe information-based teaching environment must be established, and corresponding teaching software must be developed and provided according to the teaching needs; Improve teachers'ability to master and use IT, build a learning, service and innovative \"artisan\" teacher team, clarify the leading role of teachers and the role of students' main role; finally, we must handle IT and The problem of combining traditional education solves the problem of diversifying information and guiding core values.