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The genus Ficus is an evergreen plant, the most numerous species in the family Moraceae, and is often used as a food and pharmacy source. The phylogenetic relationships of the genus Ficus have been debated for many years due to the overlapping phenotypic characters and morphological similarities between the genera. In this study, the eight Ficus species (Ficus altissima, Ficus auriculata, Ficus benjamina, Ficus curtipes, Ficus heteromorpha, Ficus lyrata, Ficus microcarpa, and Ficus virens) complete chloroplast (cp) genomes were successfully sequenced and phylogenetic analyses were made with other Ficus species. The result showed that the eight Ficus cp genomes ranged from 160,333 bp (F. heteromorpha) to 160,772 bp (F. curtipes), with a typical quadripartite structure. It was found that the eight Ficus cp genomes had similar genome structures, containing 127 unique genes. The cp genomes of the eight Ficus species contained 89–104 SSR loci, which were dominated by mono-nucleotides repeats. Moreover, we identified eight hypervariable regions (trnS-GCU_trnG-UCC, trnT-GGU_psbD, trnV-UAC_trnM-CAU, clpP_psbB, ndhF_trnL-UAG, trnL-UAG_ccsA, ndhD_psaC, and ycf1). Phylogenetic analyses have shown that the subgenus Ficus and subgenus Synoecia exhibit close affinities and based on the results, we prefer to merge the subgenus Synoecia into the subgenus Ficus. At the same time, new insights into the subgeneric classification of the Ficus macrophylla were provided. Overall, these results provide useful data for further studies on the molecular identification, phylogeny, species identification and population genetics of speciation in the Ficus genus.

The genus Ficus of the family Moraceae, is one of the largest genera of angiosperms, with diverse pharmaceutical applications and biological activities. The traditional approaches based on the morphological traits have been frequently implemented for taxonomical identification of the different taxa of Ficus , however, encompassing these features are quite laborious, due to the dependence of these phenotypic traits on the environmental conditions. So, authenticating the taxonomical identity of the Ficus taxa with molecular barcoding and metabolic profiling, as relatively stable traits, could be a relevant approach for confirming the traditional phenotypic traits of this genus. Nine species of the genus Ficus namely F. amplissima Sm., F. benjamina L. F. binnendijkii , F. drupacea var. pubescens , F. elastica Roxb., F. microcarpa L., F. religiosa L., F. tinctoria subsp. gibbosa and F. virens var. sublancelata in Egypt, were selected for this study. From the anatomical features, three species of subsection Urostigma, F. religiosa , F. virens var. sublanceolata have cystoliths on the abaxial layer, whereas in F. amplissima it was on the adaxial layer. The UPGMA dendrogram of the studied Ficus taxa has been generated from the 21 anatomical characters, categorized the studied taxa into two clusters (I and II) of average distance ~ 3.5, each cluster has been further divided into subclusters I and II. The sub-cluster I includes F. religiosa , F. virens var. sublanceolata and F. tinctoria subsp. gibbosa were grouped together to subsection Urostigma, while the sub-cluster II of the cluster I includes F. benjamina and F. amplissima . From the DNA barcoding analysis, three clusters I, II and III were emerged, the cluster I includes F. benjamina , F. binnendjikee , and F. amplissima . The cluster II, F. virens var. sublanceolata and F. religiosa that belong to subsection Urostigma, while, the cluster III includes F. elastica and F. drupacea var. pubescens , F. microcarpa that belongs to subsection Conosycea. From the metabolic profiling of Ficus species, the major compounds; H-cycloprop-azulen-7-ol, 3,7,11,15-Tetramethyl-2-hexadecen-1-ol, 2-(9-octadecenyloxy), pentadecanoic acid, phytol, sitosterol and 9,12-octadecadienoic acid were the common among the taxa, with an obvious fluctuation, that could be a chemotaxonomic markers for these species of Ficus . Based on the metabolic profiling, two distinct clusters I and II were evolved, the cluster I involve F. elastica , F. benjamina , F. drupacea var. pubescens , F. amplissima , while, the cluster II had F. tinctoria subsp. gibbosa and F. religiosa . The fluctuation on the metabolites of the tested Ficus species could be a metabolic fingerprint for each species. So, the delamination of the tested plants based on their anatomical traits was typically matched to the separation based on the ITS sequence analysis.

Fig ( Ficus spp.) trees have been known as keystone species in the tropics and provide food sources for various species. The study aimed to reveal the diversity of fig trees in a tropical urban residential area of Sentul City, Bogor, West Java, as a part of a bigger study on the wildlife-fig relationship. A purposively selected sample (270 ha of housing, boulevard) and all Ficus were censused. Data on species diversity, height, diameter, and fruiting stage were taken. There were 389 Ficus trees, belonging to 10 species, namely F. benjamina, F. binnendykii, F. caulocarpa, F. elastica, F. kurzii, F. lyrata, F. maclellandii, F. macrocarpa, F. septica, and F. variegata , of which two species ( F. lyrata and F. maclellandii ) were non-native species. Ficus were planted as a border, roadsides, shading trees, or ornament. Based on the number of individuals, the most common species was F. benjamina (63.75%), followed by F. kurzii (14.4%) and F. lyrata (9.5%). As the F. benjamina can grow big, only about half (56.4%) were in full tree condition, while the rest were pruned (15.5%), trimmed (14.7%), or cut off (13.4%). This study showed that the diversity of fig trees in residential areas of Sentul City, Bogor is affected by the area’s management.

Background The large genus Ficus comprises approximately 800 species, most of which possess high ornamental and ecological values. However, its evolutionary history remains largely unknown. Plastome (chloroplast genome) analysis had become an essential tool for species identification and for unveiling evolutionary relationships between species, genus and other rank groups. In this work we present the plastomes of ten Ficus species. Results The complete chloroplast (CP) genomes of eleven Ficus specimens belonging to ten species were determined and analysed. The full length of the Ficus plastome was nearly 160 kbp with a similar overall GC content, ranging from 35.88 to 36.02%. A total of 114 unique genes, distributed in 80 protein-coding genes, 30 tRNAs, and 4 rRNAs, were annotated in each of the Ficus CP genome. In addition, these CP genomes showed variation in their inverted repeat regions (IR). Tandem repeats and mononucleotide simple sequence repeat (SSR) are widely distributed across the Ficus CP genome. Comparative genome analysis showed low sequence variability. In addition, eight variable regions to be used as potential molecular markers were proposed for future Ficus species identification. According to the phylogenetic analysis, these ten Ficus species were clustered together and further divided into three clades based on different subgenera. Simultaneously, it also showed the relatedness between Ficus and Morus . Conclusion The chloroplast genome structure of 10 Ficus species was similar to that of other angiosperms, with a typical four-part structure. Chloroplast genome sizes vary slightly due to expansion and contraction of the IR region. And the variation of noncoding regions of the chloroplast genome is larger than that of coding regions. Phylogenetic analysis showed that these eleven sampled CP genomes were divided into three clades, clustered with species from subgenus Urostigma , Sycomorus , and Ficus , respectively. These results support the Berg classification system, in which the subgenus Ficus was further decomposed into the subgenus Sycomorus . In general, the sequencing and analysis of Ficus plastomes, especially the ones of species with no or limited sequences available yet, contribute to the study of genetic diversity and species evolution of Ficus , while providing useful information for taxonomic and phylogenetic studies of Ficus .

The existence of Ficus spp in shrubs areas which is a type of pioneer tree is not widely known so this research aims to obtain information on the distribution and association of Ficus spp. in the shrubs area of Gunung Ciremai National Park. Collecting data using purposive sampling method which then made sample plots with an area of 0.04 hectares each of 73 plots. The results of this study were there were 10 types of Ficus spp, including Ficus hispida, Ficus fistulosa, Ficus variegate, Ficus padana, Ficus septica, Ficus ribes, Ficus calophylla, Ficus benjamina, Ficus ampelas, and Ficus sp. They are spread from an altitude of 726 - 912 m asl. The most individuals found were Ficus hispida (77 individuals) and Ficus fistulosa (67 individuals). Of the 45 pairs there are 10 pairs that are significantly different or associated, 2 are positively associated and 8 pairs are negatively associated. This information is very important for area rehabilitation activities, especially in shrubs areas

Background Ficus johannis subsp. afghanistanica (Warb.) Browicz is an important plant species belonging to the Moraceae family and is part of the Ficus genus. In this study, the phenotypic diversity of 47 accessions of F. johannis subsp. afghanistanica was investigated using 61 morphological traits, evaluated from the Rachedr area in Sarbaz county, Sistan-va-Baluchestan province, Iran. Results One-way ANOVA ( p  < 0.05) revealed significant differences among the accessions. The coefficient of variation (CV) ranged from 4.54% (seed thickness) to 75.60% (trunk color), with 34 of the 50 traits (68%) having CVs greater than 20.00%, indicating a high degree of variation among the accessions. Leaf blade lengths ranged from 55.17 to 91.50 mm and leaf areas from 3125.93 to 7434.38 mm². Additionally, fruit length varied from 15.61 to 27.50 mm and fruit width from 13.65 to 25.16 mm. The study highlights significant morphological diversity of F. johannis subsp. afghanistanica , with key traits, including erect growth habits (25 accessions), intermediate and high vigor (21 accessions), and varied fruit ripening times (35 early, 12 late). Correlation analysis revealed a high correlation between leaf blade length and width ( r = 0.835** ) and fruit length and width ( r = 0.987** ). The results of principal component analysis showed that PC1 (6.63%), PC2 (5.06%), and PC3 (3.64%) highlighted leaf sizes, fruit sizes, and branch characteristics, respectively. The scatter plot showed that a total of 46 accessions fell within the 95% confidence ellipse, while the ‘Rachedr-39’ accession was located outside of it. Hierarchical cluster analysis revealed 4 accessions in subgroup A1, 9 in A2, 21 in B1, and 13 in B2. Conclusions As a result, the first 10 accessions of F. johannis subsp. afghanistanica were detected (‘Rachedr-1’, ‘Rachedr-39’, ‘Rachedr-16’, ‘Rachedr-31’, ‘Rachedr-37’, ‘Rachedr-12’, ‘Rachedr-15’, ‘Rachedr-3’, ‘Rachedr-27’, and ‘Rachedr-2’), with ‘Rachedr-39’ standing out due to its significant morphological differences. This study highlights the importance of morphological variation in understanding the biological diversity of the species, contributing valuable insights for conservation strategies aimed at ensuring sustainability and adaptability. These findings provide a crucial reference point for future research in plant biology and conservation.

Furanocoumarins (FCs) are plant-specialized metabolites with potent allelochemical properties. The distribution of FCs is scattered with a chemotaxonomical tendency towards four distant families with highly similar FC pathways. The mechanism by which this pathway emerged and spread in plants has not been elucidated. Furanocoumarin biosynthesis was investigated in Ficus carica (fig, Moraceae), focusing on the first committed reaction catalysed by an umbelliferone dimethylallyltransferase (UDT). Comparative RNA-seq analysis among latexes of different fig organs led to the identification of a UDT. The phylogenetic relationship of this UDT to previously reported Apiaceae UDTs was evaluated. The expression pattern of F. carica prenyltransferase 1 (FcPT1) was related to the FC contents in different latexes. Enzymatic characterization demonstrated that one of the main functions of FcPT1 is UDT activity. Phylogenetic analysis suggested that FcPT1 and Apiaceae UDTs are derived from distinct ancestors, although they both belong to the UbiA superfamily. These findings are supported by significant differences in the related gene structures. This report describes the identification of FcPT1 involved in FC biosynthesis in fig and provides new insights into multiple origins of the FC pathway and, more broadly, into the adaptation of plants to their environments.

Key messageCPPU-induced San Pedro type fig main crop parthenocarpy exhibited constantlyincreasing IAA content and more significantly enriched KEGG pathways in thereceptacle than in female flowers.N-(2-chloro-4-pyridyl)-N-phenylurea (CPPU) was applied to San Pedro fig (Ficus carica L.) main crop to induce parthenocarpy; the optimal effect was obtained with 25 mg L−1 application to syconia when female flowers were at anthesis. To elucidate the key expression changes in parthenocarpy conversion, significant changes in phytohormone level and transcriptome of fig female flowers and receptacles were monitored. HPLC–MS revealed increased IAA content in female flowers and receptacle 2, 4 and 10 days after treatment (DAT), decreased zeatin level in the receptacle 2, 4 and 10 DAT, decreased GA3 content 2 and 4 DAT, and increased GA3 content 10 DAT. ABA level increased 2 and 4 DAT, and decreased 10 DAT. CPPU-treated syconia released more ethylene than the control except 2 DAT. RNA-Seq and bioinformatics analysis revealed notably more differentially expressed KEGG pathways in the receptacle than in female flowers. In the phytohormone gene network, GA-biosynthesis genes GA20ox and GA3ox were upregulated, along with GA signal-transduction genes GID1 and GID2, and IAA-signaling genes AUX/IAA and GH3. ABA-biosynthesis gene NCED and signaling genes PP2C and ABF were downregulated 10 DAT. One ACO gene showed consistent upregulation in both female flowers and receptacle after CPPU treatment, and more than a dozen of ERFs demonstrated opposing changes in expression. Our results revealed early-stage spatiotemporal phytohormone and transcriptomic responses in CPPU-induced San Pedro fig main crop parthenocarpy, which could be valuable for further understanding the nature of the parthenocarpy of different fig types.

Liver diseases and defects are on the constant rise all around the world, with the available pharmaceutical drugs not being efficient for treatment and also presenting adverse effects after use. The general objective of the study was to determine the hepatoprotective effect of 50% hydroethanolic extract of Ficus pumila on carbon tetrachloride (CCl sub( 4)) induced liver damage in rats. In this work, liver damage was induced in experimental animals by administering 1 ml/kg CCl sub( 4) orally, after which the rats were treated with 50% hydro-ethanolic extract of F. pumila and Silymarin, a standard hepatoprotective drug. 50% hydroethanolic extract at 100 and 250 mg/kg were administered for 7 days by oral route. Hepatoprotective effect was studied by assaying the activity of hepatobiliary enzymes such as ALT, AST, ALP, GGT and biochemical parameters such as cholesterol, triglycerides, high density lipoproteins, total bilirubin, direct bilirubin concentration and indirect bilirubin concentration. Body weight and liver weights (absolute and relative) of the rats were also measured. The activity of all the hepatobiliary enzymes registered significant increases upon CCl sub( 4) administration. There were also increases in cholesterol and triglyceride concentration and in total and indirect bilirubin, an indication of liver damage. F. pumila at all doses significantly (0.05- 0.001) restored liver function compared to the Silymarin control and also increased body and absolute liver weight. The results therefore indicate that leaves of F. Pumila possess hepatoprotective activity.

Due to maternal inheritance and minimal rearrangement, the chloroplast genome is an important genetic resource for evolutionary studies. However, the evolutionary dynamics and phylogenetic performance of chloroplast genomes in closely related species are poorly characterized, particularly in taxonomically complex and species-rich groups. The taxonomically unresolved Ficus sarmentosa species complex (Moraceae) comprises approximately 20 taxa with unclear genetic background. In this study, we explored the evolutionary dynamics, hotspot loci, and phylogenetic performance of thirteen chloroplast genomes (including eleven newly obtained and two downloaded from NCBI) representing the F . sarmentosa complex. Their sequence lengths, IR boundaries, repeat sequences, and codon usage were compared. Both sequence length and IR boundaries were found to be highly conserved. All four categories of long repeat sequences were found across all 13 chloroplast genomes, with palindromic and forward sequences being the most common. The number of simple sequence repeat (SSR) loci varied from 175 ( F . dinganensis and F . howii ) to 190 ( F . polynervis ), with the dinucleotide motif appearing the most frequently. Relative synonymous codon usage (RSCU) analysis indicated that codons ending with A/T were prior to those ending with C/T. The majority of coding sequence regions were found to have undergone negative selection with the exception of ten genes ( accD , clpP , ndhK , rbcL , rpl20 , rpl22 , rpl23 , rpoC1 , rps15 , and rps4 ) which exhibited potential positive selective signatures. Five hypervariable genic regions ( rps15 , ycf1 , rpoA , ndhF , and rpl22 ) and five hypervariable intergenic regions ( trnH-GUG - psbA , rpl32 - trnL-UAG , psbZ - trnG-GCC , trnK-UUU - rps 16 and ndhF - rpl32 ) were identified. Overall, phylogenomic analysis based on 123 Ficus chloroplast genomes showed promise for studying the evolutionary relationships in Ficus , despite cyto-nuclear discordance. Furthermore, based on the phylogenetic performance of the F . sarmentosa complex and F . auriculata complex, the chloroplast genome also exhibited a promising phylogenetic resolution in closely related species.