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The genus Ficus of the family Moraceae, is one of the largest genera of angiosperms, with diverse pharmaceutical applications and biological activities. The traditional approaches based on the morphological traits have been frequently implemented for taxonomical identification of the different taxa of Ficus , however, encompassing these features are quite laborious, due to the dependence of these phenotypic traits on the environmental conditions. So, authenticating the taxonomical identity of the Ficus taxa with molecular barcoding and metabolic profiling, as relatively stable traits, could be a relevant approach for confirming the traditional phenotypic traits of this genus. Nine species of the genus Ficus namely F. amplissima Sm., F. benjamina L. F. binnendijkii , F. drupacea var. pubescens , F. elastica Roxb., F. microcarpa L., F. religiosa L., F. tinctoria subsp. gibbosa and F. virens var. sublancelata in Egypt, were selected for this study. From the anatomical features, three species of subsection Urostigma, F. religiosa , F. virens var. sublanceolata have cystoliths on the abaxial layer, whereas in F. amplissima it was on the adaxial layer. The UPGMA dendrogram of the studied Ficus taxa has been generated from the 21 anatomical characters, categorized the studied taxa into two clusters (I and II) of average distance ~ 3.5, each cluster has been further divided into subclusters I and II. The sub-cluster I includes F. religiosa , F. virens var. sublanceolata and F. tinctoria subsp. gibbosa were grouped together to subsection Urostigma, while the sub-cluster II of the cluster I includes F. benjamina and F. amplissima . From the DNA barcoding analysis, three clusters I, II and III were emerged, the cluster I includes F. benjamina , F. binnendjikee , and F. amplissima . The cluster II, F. virens var. sublanceolata and F. religiosa that belong to subsection Urostigma, while, the cluster III includes F. elastica and F. drupacea var. pubescens , F. microcarpa that belongs to subsection Conosycea. From the metabolic profiling of Ficus species, the major compounds; H-cycloprop-azulen-7-ol, 3,7,11,15-Tetramethyl-2-hexadecen-1-ol, 2-(9-octadecenyloxy), pentadecanoic acid, phytol, sitosterol and 9,12-octadecadienoic acid were the common among the taxa, with an obvious fluctuation, that could be a chemotaxonomic markers for these species of Ficus . Based on the metabolic profiling, two distinct clusters I and II were evolved, the cluster I involve F. elastica , F. benjamina , F. drupacea var. pubescens , F. amplissima , while, the cluster II had F. tinctoria subsp. gibbosa and F. religiosa . The fluctuation on the metabolites of the tested Ficus species could be a metabolic fingerprint for each species. So, the delamination of the tested plants based on their anatomical traits was typically matched to the separation based on the ITS sequence analysis.

As synthetic antioxidants that are widely used in foods are known to cause detrimental health effects, studies on natural additives as potential antioxidants are becoming increasingly important. In this work, the total phenolic content (TPC) and antioxidant activity of Ficus carica Linn latex from 18 cultivars were investigated. The TPC of latex was calculated using the Folin–Ciocalteu assay. 1,1-Diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), 2,2′-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) and ferric ion reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) were used for antioxidant activity assessment. The bioactive compounds from F. carica latex were extracted via maceration and ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) with 75% ethanol as solvent. Under the same extraction conditions, the latex of cultivar ‘White Genoa’ showed the highest antioxidant activity of 65.91% ± 1.73% and 61.07% ± 1.65% in DPPH, 98.96% ± 1.06% and 83.04% ± 2.16% in ABTS, and 27.08 ± 0.34 and 24.94 ± 0.84 mg TE/g latex in FRAP assay via maceration and UAE, respectively. The TPC of ‘White Genoa’ was 315.26 ± 6.14 and 298.52 ± 9.20 µg GAE/mL via the two extraction methods, respectively. The overall results of this work showed that F. carica latex is a potential natural source of antioxidants. This finding is useful for further advancements in the fields of food supplements, food additives and drug synthesis in the future.

It is thought that speciation in phytophagous insects is often due to colonization of novel host plants, because radiations of plant and insect lineages are typically asynchronous. Recent phylogenetic comparisons have supported this model of diversification for both insect herbivores and specialized pollinators. An exceptional case where contemporaneous plant-insect diversification might be expected is the obligate mutualism between fig trees (Ficus species, Moraceae) and their pollinating wasps (Agaonidae, Hymenoptera). The ubiquity and ecological significance of this mutualism in tropical and subtropical ecosystems has long intrigued biologists, but the systematic challenge posed by >750 interacting species pairs has hindered progress toward understanding its evolutionary history. In particular, taxon sampling and analytical tools have been insufficient for large-scale cophylogenetic analyses. Here, we sampled nearly 200 interacting pairs of fig and wasp species from across the globe. Two supermatrices were assembled: on an average, wasps had sequences from 77% of 6 genes (5.6 kb), figs had sequences from 60% of 5 genes (5.5 kb), and overall 850 new DNA sequences were generated for this study. We also developed a new analytical tool, Jane 2, for event-based phylogenetic reconciliation analysis of very large data sets. Separate Bayesian phylogenetic analyses for figs and fig wasps under relaxed molecular clock assumptions indicate Cretaceous diversification of crown groups and contemporaneous divergence for nearly half of all fig and pollinator lineages. Event-based cophylogenetic analyses further support the codiversification hypothesis. Biogeographic analyses indicate that the present-day distribution of fig and pollinator lineages is consistent with a Eurasian origin and subsequent dispersal, rather than with Gondwanan vicariance. Overall, our findings indicate that the fig-pollinator mutualism represents an extreme case among plant-insect interactions of coordinated dispersal and long-term codiversification.

Theory predicts that mutualisms should be vulnerable to invasion by cheaters, yet mutualistic interactions are both ancient and diverse. What prevents one partner from reaping the benefits of the interaction without paying the costs? Using field experiments and observations, we examined factors affecting mutualism stability in six fig tree–fig wasp species pairs. We experimentally compared the fitness of wasps that did or did not perform their most basic mutualistic service, pollination. We found host sanctions that reduced the fitness of non-pollinating wasps in all derived, actively pollinated fig species (where wasps expend time and energy pollinating), but not in the basal, passively pollinated fig species (where wasps do not). We further screened natural populations of pollinators for wasp individuals that did not carry pollen (‘cheaters’). Pollen-free wasps occurred only in actively pollinating wasp species, and their prevalence was negatively correlated with the sanction strength of their host species. Combined with previous studies, our findings suggest that (i) mutualisms can show coevolutionary dynamics analogous to those of ‘arms races’ in overtly antagonistic interactions; (ii) sanctions are critical for long-term mutualism stability when providing benefits to a host is costly, and (iii) there are general principles that help maintain cooperation both within and among species.

Abstract Land degradation poses a global challenge to ecosystem sustainability and human well-being, driven primarily by deforestation, intensive agriculture, and mining. Rehabilitation efforts, particularly through Ficus species, offer effective solutions to restore soil fertility and ecosystem functions. This study analyzed soil fertility around Ficus trees in three land-use types in Kuningan Regency, Indonesia: sand mining areas, community gardens, and secondary forests. Soil samples (0-30 cm depth) were analyzed for physical and chemical parameters, including pH, organic C, total N, C/N ratio, P2O5, K2O, cation exchange capacity, and texture. Results revealed variations in soil fertility across locations: low to medium in sand mining areas, low to high in community gardens, and low to high in secondary forests. Ficus species observed included Ficus benjamina and Ficus septica in sand mining areas; F. benjamina, F. septica, F. fistulosa, and F. variegata in community gardens; and F. benjamina, F. septica, F. variegata, and F. virens in secondary forests. Among these, Ficus benjamina and Ficus septica are recommended for land rehabilitation due to their adaptability and contributions to soil restoration. Resumo A degradação dos solos representa um desafio global para a sustentabilidade dos ecossistemas e para o bem-estar humano, impulsionada principalmente pelo desmatamento, pela agricultura intensiva e pela mineração. Os esforços de reabilitação, especialmente por meio de espécies do gênero Ficus, oferecem soluções eficazes para restaurar a fertilidade do solo e as funções dos ecossistemas. Este estudo analisou a fertilidade do solo ao redor das árvores Ficus em três tipos de uso da terra no Distrito de Kuningan, na Indonésia: áreas de mineração de areia, hortas comunitárias e florestas secundárias. Amostras de solo (0-30 cm de profundidade) foram analisadas quanto a parâmetros físicos e químicos, incluindo pH, carbono orgânico, nitrogênio total, relação C/N, P2O5, K2O, capacidade de troca de cátions e textura. Os resultados revelaram variações na fertilidade do solo entre locais: baixa a média em áreas de mineração de areia, baixa a alta em hortas comunitárias e baixa a alta em florestas secundárias. As espécies de Ficus observadas incluíram Ficus benjamina e Ficus septica em áreas de mineração de areia; F. benjamina, F. septica, F. fistulosa e F. variegata em hortas comunitárias; e F. benjamina, F. septica, F. variegata e F. virens em florestas secundárias. Entre estes, Ficus benjamina e Ficus septica são recomendados para reabilitação de terrenos devido à sua adaptabilidade e contribuições para a restauração do solo.

Seed dispersal by vertebrates is one of the most common and important plant–animal mutualisms, involving an enormous diversity of fruiting plants and frugivorous animals. Even though plant reproduction depends largely on seed dispersal, evolutionary ecologists have been unable to link co-occurring traits in fruits with differences in behavior, physiology, and morphology of fruit-eating vertebrates. Hence, the origin and maintenance of fruit diversity remains largely unexplained. Using a multivariate phylogenetic comparative test with unbiased estimates of odor and color in figs, we demonstrate that fruit traits evolve in concert and as predicted by differences in the behavior, physiology (perceptive ability) and morphology of their frugivorous seed dispersers. The correlated evolution of traits results in the convergence of general appearance of fruits in species that share disperser types. Observations at fruiting trees independently confirmed that differences in fig traits predict differences in dispersers. Taken together, these results demonstrate that differences among frugivores have shaped the evolution of fruit traits. More broadly, our results underscore the importance of mutualisms in both generating and maintaining biodiversity.

The causes of variation in animal species richness at large spatial scales are intensively debated. Here, we examine whether the diversity of food plants, contemporary climate and energy, or habitat heterogeneity determine species richness patterns of avian frugivores across sub-Saharan Africa. Path models indicate that species richness of Ficus (their fruits being one of the major food resources for frugivores in the tropics) has the strongest direct effect on richness of avian frugivores, whereas the influences of variables related to water-energy and habitat heterogeneity are mainly indirect. The importance of Ficus richness for richness of avian frugivores diminishes with decreasing specialization of birds on fruit eating, but is retained when accounting for spatial autocorrelation. We suggest that a positive relationship between food plant and frugivore species richness could result from niche assembly mechanisms (e.g. coevolutionary adaptations to fruit size, fruit colour or vertical stratification of fruit presentation) or, alternatively, from stochastic speciation-extinction processes. In any case, the close relationship between species richness of Ficus and avian frugivores suggests that figs are keystone resources for animal consumers, even at continental scales.

To date all public records of F . carica SSR profiles are from NCGR Davis. Prior studies of this data have not been received well because several of the stated relationships do not match what is observed in the field. Upon examination of the prior authors methods it is found that the 1979 Nei similarity measures are not valid distance metrics for the profiles thus invalidating their analysis of genetic distance. Further, the data are tensor in nature and it is shown here that \"flattening the data\" for use in a vector method will change the problem under study. Consequently the present analysis focuses on geometric, statistical, and biostatistical tensor-based methods–finding that only the latter produces results matching what is manually observed among the profiles. Combining this with historical breeding records and morphologic observations reveals that a modest portion of the profiled accessions are mislabeled–and also reveals the existence of previously undocumented close relations. Another area of concern in the prior studies is the statistical partitioning of the complete graph of distances to define clades. In the present analysis it is shown that genetic clades cannot be defined in this profile collection due to lack of cohesion in nearest neighbor components. It is also shown that it is presently intractable to significantly rectify gaps in the sample population by profile enrichment because the number of individuals in an entire population within the estimated profile distribution exceeds 10 14 . The profiles themselves are found to have very few occurrences of common values between the 15 loci and thus according to Fisher’s theory of epistatic variance no correlation to phenotype attributes is expected–a result verified by the original investigators. Therefore further discovery of appropriate markers is needed to fully capture geno- and pheno-type characteristics in F . carica and F . palmata SSR profiles.

The genus (Moraceae) is a large and ecologically important group, known for its intricate fig-wasp pollination mutualism and role as a keystone resource in tropical ecosystems. Despite its significance, the phylogenetic relationships within remain partially unresolved, necessitating more comprehensive genomic data. Chloroplast (cp) genomes are valuable resources for plant phylogenetic and comparative genomic studies. Here, we sequenced, assembled, and comparatively analyzed the complete chloroplast genomes of seven species, including , , , , , , and . The complete cp genomes were successfully assembled, ranging in size from 160,340 bp to 160,669 bp, and exhibited a typical quadripartite structure with highly conserved gene content and arrangement. Critically, while some of these species have previously published plastomes, our assemblies consistently encoded 130 genes, contrasting with reported gene counts ( , 129 for (NC_059898), 119 for (KY635880), 131 for (MT093220)) in earlier studies. Numerous repeat sequences and simple sequence repeats (SSRs) were identified, predominantly in non-coding regions, which serve as valuable resources for developing novel genetic markers. Analysis of codon usage revealed a strong bias towards A/T endings, a common feature in plant cp genomes. While inverted repeat (IR) boundary regions were largely conserved, minor variations, including partial gene duplications ( 19, 2), were observed. Comparative genome alignment and nucleotide diversity analysis showed high sequence conservation, with most variations concentrated in single-copy and non-coding regions. We identified three hypervariable regions ( A, A - D, and B - C-GCA) with elevated nucleotide diversity (Pi > 0.012, A up to 0.0141), suggesting their utility as candidate DNA barcodes for . Phylogenetic analysis using 79 protein-coding genes from 26 species robustly supported the monophyly of and resolved the seven newly sequenced species into two well-supported clades, consistent with previous classifications. Our study provides new, consistently assembled and rigorously annotated chloroplast genome data for , including clarified data for previously studied species with notable gene content discrepancies. These data identify candidate molecular markers with potential applications for systematics and population genetics, and offer robust insights into relationships among sampled taxa. These data will facilitate future studies of evolution and conservation when complemented by broader taxon sampling and nuclear/mitochondrial data.

Figs (Ficus; ca 750 species) and fig wasps (Agaoninae) are obligate mutualists: all figs are pollinated by agaonines that feed exclusively on figs. This extraordinary symbiosis is the most extreme example of specialization in a plant-pollinator interaction and has fuelled much speculation about co-divergence. The hypothesis that pollinator specialization led to the parallel diversification of fig and pollinator lineages (co-divergence) has so far not been tested due to the lack of robust and comprehensive phylogenetic hypotheses for both partners. We produced and combined the most comprehensive molecular phylogenetic trees to date with fossil data to generate independent age estimates for fig and pollinator lineages, using both non-parametric rate smoothing and penalized likelihood dating methods. Molecular dating of ten pairs of interacting lineages provides an unparalleled example of plant-insect co-divergence over a geological time frame spanning at least 60 million years.