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In 215 patients with a median age of 16 years, fingolimod was superior to interferon beta-1a in reducing relapses of multiple sclerosis and the accumulation of new lesions on MRI over a 2-year period. Seizures occurred in 5.6% of patients in the fingolimod group.

Effects of in vivo prophylactic fingolimod on microglial cells in the spinal cord of EAE mice at the acute stage of disease. (C) Quantitative evaluation of the number of Iba1-positive cells/Optic field in the spinal cord of mice of each treatment-group. * p < 0.05 versus all other groups; ° p < 0.05 versus untreated EAE mice. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0292584.g001 In response to queries about the experiments in Fig 9B, the authors stated that the EAE panel in shows an insert with higher magnification (40x) to show the alterations induced by EAE. The EAE panel contains an insert with 40X magnification.; (C) The CCL5 positive area (μm2) /mm2 in the spinal cord of mice of each treatment-group is reported. * p < 0.05 versus control untreated mice; ° p < 0.05 versus untreated EAE mice. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0292584.g002 The original data underlying the control and control + fingolimod panels in Fig 7A and the EAE panel in Fig 9B have been reviewed by PLOS.

Hyper‐inflammation, cytokine storm, and recruitment of immune cells lead to uncontrollable endothelial cell damage in patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19). Sphingosine 1‐phosphate (S1P) signaling is needed for endothelial integrity and its decreased serum level is a predictor of clinical severity in COVID‐19. In this clinical trial, the effect of Fingolimod, an agonist of S1P, was evaluated on patients with COVID‐19. Forty patients with moderate to severe COVID‐19 were enrolled and divided into two groups including (1) the control group (n = 21) receiving the national standard regimen for COVID‐19 patients and (2) the intervention group (n = 19) that prescribed daily Fingolimod (0.5 mg) for 3 days besides receiving the standard national regimen for COVID‐19. The hospitalization period, re‐admission rate, intensive care unit (ICU) administration, need for mechanical ventilation, and mortality rate were assessed as primary outcomes in both groups. The results showed that re‐admission was significantly decreased in COVID‐19 patients who received Fingolimod compared to the controls (p = .04). In addition, the hemoglobin levels of the COVID‐19 patients in the intervention group were increased compared to the controls (p = .018). However, no significant differences were found regarding the intubation or mortality rate between the groups (p > .05). Fingolimod could significantly reduce the re‐admission rate after hospitalization with COVID‐19. Fingolimod may not enhance patients' outcomes with moderate COVID‐19. It is necessary to examine these findings in a larger cohort of patients with severe to critical COVID‐19. Fingolimod could reduce the re‐admission rate after hospitalization with COVID‐19.

BackgroundThe majority of multiple sclerosis [MS] patients treated with fingolimod fail to develop a protective level of IgG humoral and adaptive cellular immune responses following full BNT162b2 SARS-CoV-2 vaccination.ObjectiveTo compare the efficacy of the third COVID-19 vaccine dose in vaccine non-responders fingolimod-treated MS patients.Study designThis is a prospective 3-month, single-center, randomized clinical trial.MethodsTwenty relapsing MS patients who had been on fingolimod therapy ≥ 12 months and failed to develop humoral IgG immune response to 2-dose Pfizer BNT162b2 COVID-19 vaccination were randomized into two groups: fingolimod-continuation group and fingolimod-discontinuation group. Humoral and memory cellular immune responses were assessed within 1 and 3 months following the third Pfizer BNT162b2 vaccine dose and compared between the groups.ResultsA higher rate of patients in the fingolimod-discontinuation group [n = 8/10] compared to fingolimod-continuation group [n = 2/10] developed positive SARS-COV-2 IgG. Median IgG titer 1 month following the third dose was 202.3 BAU/ml vs. 26.4 BAU/ml, respectively, p = 0.022. The development of IgG humoral response correlated with absolute lymphocyte count. Specific SARS-COV-2 memory B cell and T cell immune responses were not detected in both groups, either at 1 month or 3 months following the third COVID-19 vaccine dose.ConclusionsShort period of fingolimod treatment discontinuation was associated with the development of humoral protection but not with adaptive cellular immunity.

Fingolimod safety and efficacy data in relapsing–remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS) are available up to 5 years, from an extension of a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind, phase 2 study, at a dose higher (5.0/1.25 mg) than the approved dose of 0.5 mg. The objective of the study is to present the end-of-study data (>7 years) from the open-label extension of the phase 2 study. In the core phase (6 months), patients ( N  = 281) were randomized to placebo or fingolimod 1.25/5 mg. In the extension, placebo patients were randomized to fingolimod 1.25/5 mg. All patients received open-label 1.25 mg fingolimod after month 24 and 0.5 mg after month 60. Clinical visits were performed every 3 months, expanded disability status scale (EDSS) every 6 months and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) annually. 122 (48.8 %) patients completed the extension study; overall fingolimod exposure was 1230.7 patient-years. The most common (>10 %) reasons for study discontinuation were adverse events (19.6 %) and consent withdrawal (16.4 %). Fingolimod treatment for >7 years was associated with sustained low clinical and MRI disease activity. Over 60 % of patients remained relapse free and about 80 % were free from any MRI activity. Overall annualized relapse rate was 0.18. Long-term fingolimod treatment was not associated with new safety concerns. Long-term fingolimod was well tolerated and associated with a sustained low level of disease activity.

No treatments have been approved for primary progressive multiple sclerosis. Fingolimod, an oral sphingosine 1-phosphate receptor modulator, is effective in relapse-onset multiple sclerosis, but has not been assessed in primary progressive multiple sclerosis. We assessed the safety and efficacy of fingolimod in patients with primary progressive multiple sclerosis. In INFORMS, a multicentre, double-blind, placebo-controlled parallel-group study, patients with primary progressive multiple sclerosis recruited across 148 centres in 18 countries were randomly allocated (1:1) with computer-generated blocks to receive oral fingolimod or placebo for at least 36 months and a maximum of 5 years. Patients were initially assigned to fingolimod 1·25 mg per day or placebo (cohort 1); however, after a protocol amendment on Nov 19, 2009, patients were switched in a masked manner to fingolimod 0·5 mg, whereas those on placebo continued on matching placebo. From then onwards, patients were assigned to receive fingolimod 0·5 mg/day or placebo (cohort 2). Key inclusion criteria were age 25–65 years, clinical diagnosis of primary progressive multiple sclerosis, 1 year or more of disease progression, and two of the following criteria: positive brain MRI; positive spinal cord MRI; or positive cerebrospinal fluid. Additional eligibility criteria included disease duration of 2–10 years and objective evidence of disability progression in the previous 2 years. Patients and study investigators were masked to group assignment. We used a novel primary composite endpoint based on change from baseline in Expanded Disability Status Scale (EDSS), 25' Timed-Walk Test, or Nine-Hole Peg Test to assess time to 3-month confirmed disability progression in study participants treated for at least 3 years. All randomised patients took at least one dose of study drug. The primary efficacy analysis included all patients in cohort 2 and those assigned to placebo in cohort 1. The safety analysis included all patients in cohorts 1 and 2. This study is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, number NCT00731692. The study is now closed. 970 patients were randomly assigned between Sept 3, 2008, and Aug 30, 2011 (147 to fingolimod 1·25 mg and 133 to placebo in cohort 1; 336 to fingolimod 0·5 mg and 354 to placebo in cohort 2). The efficacy analysis set (n=823) consisted of 336 patients randomly allocated to fingolimod 0·5 mg and 487 to placebo. Baseline characteristics were similar across groups and representative of a primary progressive multiple sclerosis population (48% women, mean age 48·5 years [SD 8·4], mean EDSS 4·67 [SD 1·03], 87% free of gadolinium-enhancing lesions). By end of study, 3-month confirmed disability progression had occurred in 232 and 338 patients in the fingolimod and placebo groups, respectively, resulting in Kaplan-Meier estimates of 77·2% (95% CI 71·87–82·51) of patients in the fingolimod group versus 80·3% (73·31–87·25) of patients in the placebo group (risk reduction 5·05%; hazard ratio 0·95, 95% CI 0·80–1·12; p=0·544). Safety results were generally consistent with those of studies of fingolimod in patients with relapse-onset multiple sclerosis. Lymphopenia occurred in 19 (6%) patients in the fingolimod group versus none in the placebo group, bradycardia in five (1%) versus one (<1%), and first-degree atrioventricular block in three (1%) versus six (1%). Serious adverse events occurred in 84 (25%) patients in the fingolimod group and 117 (24%) in the placebo group, including macular oedema in six (2%) versus six (1%), and basal-cell carcinoma in 14 (4%) versus nine (2%). The anti-inflammatory effects of fingolimod did not slow disease progression in primary progressive multiple sclerosis. Therapeutic strategies for primary progressive multiple sclerosis might need different approaches to those used for relapse-onset multiple sclerosis. Novartis Pharma AG.

Background The low level of disease activity and manageable safety profile seen with fingolimod versus placebo in a 6-month, phase 2, randomized controlled trial in Japanese patients with relapsing multiple sclerosis (MS; ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier NCT00537082) were maintained in the initial 6-month observational study extension. Here, we report long-term safety and efficacy results of the 3-year follow-up to the phase 2 study extension. Methods The 6-month core study was completed by 147 patients, of whom 143 entered the extension and took at least one dose of fingolimod. Those originally randomized to placebo were re-randomized to fingolimod 1.25 mg ( n  = 23) or 0.5 mg ( n  = 27). During the extension, the patients taking fingolimod 1.25 mg ( n  = 46) were switched to open-label fingolimod 0.5 mg, and those originally randomized to fingolimod 0.5 mg ( n  = 47) continued with open-label fingolimod 0.5 mg. Results Continuous fingolimod treatment was associated with a sustained low level of MRI and relapse activity for the duration of the extension phase; 75–100% (range across all assessment time points up to end of study) of patients remained free of Gd-enhanced T1 lesions, 88–100% remained free of new/newly enlarged T2 lesions, and 45–62% remained relapse-free. In patients who switched to the active treatment, a 79.5% decrease in annualized relapse rate (ARR; from 1.131 before switch to 0.232 6-months after switch) was observed in the first 6 months of the extension phase and thereafter remained low until the end of study (0.16–0.31 across all assessment time points after switch up to end of study). The mean number of Gd-enhanced T1 and new/newly enlarged T2 lesions decreased up to month 9 and thereafter remained low until the end of study (0.0–0.1 and 0.0–0.3, respectively, across all assessment time points after switch up to end of study). Fingolimod was generally well-tolerated and the safety profile was consistent with the core and 6-month extension. Serious adverse events were reported in 13.3% of patients during the extension study, with the range in the continuous fingolimod and placebo-fingolimod switch groups (3.7–21.7%) being similar to that reported in the core study for the placebo and fingolimod groups (5.3–20.4%). Conclusion Continuous fingolimod treatment over 36 months was associated with maintained efficacy and a manageable safety profile with no new safety signals. These results indicate that fingolimod provides long-term treatment benefit for Japanese patients with relapsing MS. Trial registration ClinicalTrials.gov NCT00670449 (April 28, 2008).

Ozanimod and fingolimod are sphingosine 1-phosphate receptor–modulating therapies for relapsing multiple sclerosis. Comparative effectiveness was assessed by matching adjusted indirect comparisons of safety and efficacy trial outcomes at first-dose cardiac monitoring, 1 year and 2 years. After adjustment, baseline characteristics were similar. Ozanimod was associated with a lower risk of extended first-dose monitoring, conduction abnormalities including atrioventricular block. One-year risks of any adverse event (AE), mean lymphocyte count reductions and abnormal liver enzymes were lower with ozanimod. Two-year risks of AEs leading to discontinuation, any AEs, herpetic infections, bradycardia and abnormal liver enzymes were lower with ozanimod. Analyses of efficacy outcomes were similar. Ozanimod appears to have a favorable benefit-risk profile versus fingolimod.

Objectives To compare the efficacies, frequencies and reasons for treatment interruption of fingolimod (FTY), dimethyl fumarate (DMF) or teriflunomide (TERI) in a nationwide observational cohort. Materials and methods Two cohorts of patients with relapsing–remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS) having started treatment with FTY, DMF or TERI documented in the Austrian MS Treatment Registry (AMSTR) since 2014 and either staying on therapy for at least 24 months (24 m cohort) or with at least one follow-up visit after start of treatment (total cohort). The 24 m cohort included 629 RRMS patients: 295 in the FTY, 227 in the DMF and 107 in the TERI group. We used multinomial propensity scores for inverse probability weighting in generalized linear and Cox proportional hazards models to correct for the bias of this non-randomised registry study. Results Estimated mean annualized relapse rates (ARR) over 24 months were 0.13 for FTY, 0.09 for DMF and 0.11 for TERI treatment. For TERI in comparison with DMF, we observed higher probability for treatment interruption ( p  = 0.023) and reduced sustained EDSS regression for 12 ( p  = 0.016) and 24 weeks ( p  = 0.031) and, for the comparison of DMF versus FTY, a reduced sustained EDSS progression for 12 weeks ( p  = 0.02). Conclusions Relapse rates with treatment with FTY, DMF and TERI were similar. Patients treated with DMF showed less sustained disability progression for 12 weeks than FTY-treated patients. However, FTY and DMF treatment was associated with more likely EDSS regression for 12 and 24 weeks and a lower probability for treatment interruption as compared to TERI-treated patients.

Since the approval of fingolimod, several selective sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor modulators have entered clinical development for multiple sclerosis. However, side effects can occur with sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor modulators. By considering short-term data across the drug class and longer term fingolimod data, we aim to highlight the potential of sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor modulators in multiple sclerosis, while offering reassurance that their benefit–risk profiles are suitable for long-term therapy. Short-term fingolimod studies demonstrated the efficacy of this drug class, showed that cardiac events upon first-dose administration are transient and manageable, and showed that serious adverse events are rare. Early-phase studies of selective sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor modulators also show efficacy with a similar or improved safety profile, and treatment initiation effects were reduced with dose titration. Longer term fingolimod studies demonstrated sustained efficacy and raised no new safety concerns, with no increases in macular edema, infection, or malignancy rates. Switch studies identified no safety concerns and greater patient satisfaction and persistence with fingolimod when switching from injectable therapies with no washout period. Better outcomes were seen with short than with long washouts when switching from natalizumab. The specific immunomodulatory effects of sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor modulators are consistent with the low observed rates of long-term, drug-related adverse effects with fingolimod. Short-term data for selective sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor modulators support their potential effectiveness in multiple sclerosis, and improved side-effect profiles may widen patient access to this drug class. The long-term safety, tolerability, and persistence profiles of fingolimod should reassure clinicians that sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor modulators are likely to be suitable for the long-term treatment of multiple sclerosis.