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The aim of this work to study an efficient laccase producing fungus Ganoderma leucocontextum, which was identified by ITS regions of DNA and phylogenetic tree was constructed. This study showed the laccase first-time from G. leucocontextum by using medium containing guaiacol. The growth cultural (pH, temperature, incubation days, rpm) and nutritional (carbon and nitrogen sources) conditions were optimized, which enhanced the enzyme production up to 4.5-folds. Laccase production increased 855 U/L at 40 °C. The pH 5.0 was suitable for laccase secretion (2517 U/L) on the 7th day of incubation at 100 rpm (698.3 U/L). Glucose and sucrose were good carbon source to enhance the laccase synthesis. The 10 g/L beef (4671 U/L) and yeast extract (5776 U/L) were the best nitrogen source for laccase secretion from G. leucocontextum. The laccase was purified from the 80% ammonium sulphate precipitations of protein identified by nucleotides sequence. The molecular weight (65.0 kDa) of purified laccase was identified through SDS and native PAGE entitled as Glacc110. The Glacc110 was characterized under different parameters. It retained > 90% of its activity for 16 min incubation at 60 °C in acidic medium (pH 4.0). This enzyme exerted its optimal activity at pH 3.0 and temperature 70 °C with guaiacol substrate. The catalytic parameters K m and V max was 1.658 (mM) and 2.452 ( mM/min), respectively. The thermo stability of the laccase produced by submerged fermentation of G. leucocontextum has potential for industrial and biotechnology applications. The results remarked the G. leucocontextum is a good source for laccase production.

Ganoderma is a large, diverse and globally-distributed genus in the Basidiomycota that includes species causing a white rot form of wood decay on a variety of tree species. For the past century, many studies of Ganoderma in North America and other regions of the world have used the name G. lucidum sensu lato for any laccate (shiny or varnished) Ganoderma species growing on hardwood trees or substrates. Molecular studies have established that G. lucidum sensu stricto (Curtis) Karst is native to Europe and some parts of China. To determine the species of the laccate Ganoderma that are present in the United States, we studied over 500 collections from recently collected samples and herbarium specimens from hardwoods, conifers, and monocots. A multilocus phylogeny using ITS, tef1α, rpb1 and rpb2 revealed three well-supported clades, similar to previously reported findings. From the U.S. collections, thirteen taxa representing twelve species were identified, including: G. curtisii, G. lucidum sensu stricto, G. martinicense, G. oregonense, G. polychromum, G. ravenelii, G. sessile, G. tsugae, G. tuberculosum, G. cf. weberianum, G. zonatum, and Tomophagus colossus (syn. G. colossus). The species G. meredithiae is synonymized with G. curtisii, and considered a physiological variant that specializes in decay of pines. The designation G. curtisii f.sp. meredithiae forma specialis nov. is proposed. Species such as G. curtisii and G. sessile, once considered as G. lucidum sensu lato, were found to be divergent from one another, and highly divergent from G. lucidum sensu stricto. Morphological characteristics such as context tissue color and features (e.g. melanoid bands), basidiospore shape and size, geographic location, and host preference were found to aid in species identification. Surprisingly, G. lucidum sensu stricto was found in the U.S., but only in geographically restricted areas of northern Utah and California. These collections appear to have resulted from the introduction of this species into the United States possibly from mushroom growers producing G. lucidum outdoors. Overall, this study clarifies the chaotic taxonomy of the laccate Ganoderma in the United States, and will help to remove ambiguities from future studies focusing on the North American species of laccate Ganoderma.

Ganoderic acids (GAs) are bioactive triterpenoids produced by Ganoderma species with demonstrated anticancer properties. While the yield of GAs in Ganoderma tsugae is typically low, heat stress has been shown to enhance its production. This study employed atmospheric and room temperature plasma (ARTP) mutagenesis to develop thermotolerant G. tsugae mutants for high-temperature cultivation at 35°C. From 59 mutants generated, strain Ganoderma tsugae 9 (GT9) demonstrated superior thermotolerance, showing 51.48% increased mycelial growth rate and 76.03% higher biomass compared to wild-type (WT) at 35°C (one-way ANOVA with Dunnett’s test, p < 0.05). Physiological characterization revealed GT9 possessed enhanced membrane fluidity, elevated intracellular levels of lanosterol (92.49% increase), squalene (1.36-fold increase), trehalose, and ergosterol (66.98% increase) (two-way ANOVA with Tukey’s test, p < 0.05). Transcriptional analysis revealed significant upregulation of key GAs biosynthetic genes ( hmgr , sqs , se , ls ) and heat shock protein genes ( hsp17.4 , hsp22 , hsp70 , hsp90 ). After 10-day cultivation at 35°C, GT9 produced 1.01-fold more GAs than the WT at 35°C and 22.64% more than the WT at 25°C (two-way ANOVA with Tukey’s test, p < 0.05). However, the difference in GAs production between the WT strain cultured at 25°C and the GT9 strain cultured at 35°C was not significant. ARTP-generated thermotolerant G. tsugae mutants enable efficient high-temperature fermentation for enhanced GAs production. This strategy provides significant advantages for industrial-scale application while elucidating the physiological and molecular mechanisms underlying improved GAs biosynthesis under heat stress.

This study reports for the first time the occurrence of Ganoderma ellipsoideum , a wood-decaying fungus, in Vietnam. Species identification was achieved through morphological characterization and sequencing of the internal transcribed spacer region of nuclear ribosomal DNA. Phylogenetic analysis confirmed that the Vietnamese specimens clustered within the Ganoderma ellipsoideum taxon, supported by high bootstrap and posterior probability values (90%/1.00). Morphological features further indicated its placement within the Ganoderma applanatum–australe complex. In vitro cytotoxicity assays revealed that the ethanol extract and its sub-fractions (n-hexane, ethyl acetate, aqueous) exerted inhibitory effects on human breast cancer MCF-7 cells, with the ethyl acetate fraction showing the strongest activity. In silico molecular docking demonstrated strong binding affinities between major triterpenoid compounds and key breast cancer-related proteins, including HPA, MELK, CK2α, and NUDT5. These findings not only establish Ganoderma ellipsoideum as a newly recorded species in Vietnam, but also suggest its promising potential as a source of anticancer agents.

Ganoderma is a cosmopolitan genus that encompasses species with cultural, economic, and pathogenic importance. Despite the importance of this genus, knowledge pertaining to the species diversity of Ganoderma in South Africa is limited. This study aimed at elucidating the identity and phylogenetic placements of Ganoderma samples obtained during a survey of wood-rotting fungi in the Garden Route National Park (GRNP) of South Africa, supplemented with isolates obtained from other localities across the country. Identification was achieved by means of multilocus phylogenetic inference combined with morphological evaluation. In total, eight distinct species of Ganoderma were recovered from different hosts and localities across the country. Of these, Ganoderma cf. cupreum and Ganoderma cf. resinaceum represent possible new records for South Africa. Two novel species are described, namely, G. eickeri. and G. knysnamense. Ganoderma eickeri, sp. nov., is characterized by a triquetrous and broadly attached basidiome, a sulcate or zonate yellowish brown to brown pilear surface, and ovoid to ellipsoid basidiospores. Ganoderma knysnamense is distinguished by an applanate to ungulate, sometimes convex, dimidiate to broadly attached basidiome, a chocolate-brown pilear surface covered with a hard woody-like crust and ellipsoid, broadly ellipsoid to ovoid basidiospores. The discovery of two new Ganoderma species in this study raises the known Ganoderma species in South Africa to 13.

Ganoderma ellipsoideum Hapuar., T.C. Wen and K.D. Hyde is a newly identified pathogenic species causing basal stem rot (BSR) in oil palm in India, yet its genetic underpinnings remain uncharacterized. We present the first first draft/contig-level genomeof G. ellipsoideum (41.6 Mb, 56.01% GC, N50 = 36,014 bp), which is 97% complete with 11,939 predicted genes and 13,434 predicted transcripts. A diverse ligninolytic enzyme arsenal (14 laccases, 24 peroxidases) was also identified. Phylogenomic analysis positions G. ellipsoideum closely with G. boninense . Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopaedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) databases reveal many genes responsible for metabolism, signalling, and protein turnover. Glycoside hydrolases (GH) (48.7%) and glycosyltransferases (GT) (24.1%) were identified as the most abundant carbohydrate-active enzymes (CAZymes) highlighting the plant cell wall degradation capabilities of this fungus. In addition, nonribosomal peptide synthetase (NRPS)-like clusters (94%) and type I polyketide synthase (T1PKS) clusters (6%) that were related to secondary metabolite biosynthesis werewere predicted. A total of 1,662 simple sequence repeats (SSR), mainly trinucleotide repeats, and over 212 pathogenicity-associated genes including virulence homologs ( FKS1 , Mcs1 , Chs3 ) were mined from the genome. This first genomic resource lays a foundation for elucidating pathogenicity, guiding breeding for resistance, and developing management strategies against BSR in oil palm.

Ganoderma is a genus of medically important fungus that contains at least 80 species, many of which have not been properly evaluated for their anticancer potential. This study was conducted to assess the cytotoxic activity of the mycelial biomass of Ganoderma weberianum-sichuanese isolated from the Lower Volta River Basin of Ghana. The nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region was analyzed to determine the phylogenetic position of this native ganoderma isolate. We then tested its cytotoxic activity against the human carcinoma cell line PC-3 (human prostate), Jurkat (human T lymphoblastoid cell line), derived from an acute T cell leukemia, and PMDC05, a plasmacytoid dendritic cell (pDC) derived from acute leukemia using the 3-(4,5-dimethyl-2-thiazolyl)-2,5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. The ITS phylogenetic analysis demonstrated that this native Ghanaian ganoderma isolate belongs to the Ganoderma weberianum-sichuanese species complex. Fractions of the mycelial biomass were found to inhibit significantly (≤ 0.05%) the proliferation and survival of the three cancer cell lines, PC-3, PMDC05, and Jurkat with increasing concentrations and with IC 50 values of 27.73 ± 5.25, 21.31 ± 2.40 and 17.09 ± 0.86 μg/mL, respectively compared to Chang liver cells (CVCL_0238) with IC 50 value of 75.41 ± 1.95 μg/mL. To the best of our knowledge, these findings demonstrated for the first time, that specific constituents of Ganoderma weberianum-sichuanese are selectively cytotoxic to the three human cancer cell lines, suggesting their potential efficacy in the treatment of malignancies. Future studies to isolate and characterize the biologically active molecules are warranted.

Basal stem rot due to a fungal pathogen, Ganoderma boninense , is one of the most devastating diseases in oil palm throughout the major palm oil producer countries. This study investigated the potential of polypore fungi as biological control agents against pathogenic G. boninense in oil palm. In vitro antagonistic screening of selected non-pathogenic polypore fungi was performed. Based on in planta fungi inoculation on oil palm seedlings, eight of the 21 fungi isolates tested (GL01, GL01, RDC06, RDC24, SRP11, SRP12, SRP17, and SRP18) were non-pathogenic. In vitro antagonistic assays against G. boninense revealed that the percentage inhibition of radial growth (PIRG) in dual culture assay for SRP11 (69.7%), SRP17 (67.3%), and SRP18 (72.7%) was relatively high. Percentage inhibition of diameter growth (PIDG) in volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in dual plate assay of SRP11, SRP17, and SRP18 isolates were 43.2%, 51.6%, and 52.1%, respectively. Molecular identification using the internal transcribed spacer gene sequences of SRP11, SRP17, and SRP18 isolates revealed that they were Fomes sp., Trametes elegans , and Trametes lactinea, respectively.

Basal stem rot (BSR) of oil palm is a disastrous disease caused by a white-rot fungus Ganoderma boninense Pat. Non-ribosomal peptides (NRPs) synthesized by non-ribosomal peptide synthetases (NRPSs) are a group of secondary metabolites that act as fungal virulent factors during pathogenesis in the host. In this study, we aimed to isolate NRPS gene of G. boninense strain UPMGB001 and investigate the role of this gene during G. boninense -oil palm interaction. The isolated NRPS DNA fragment of 8322 bp was used to predict the putative peptide sequence of different domains and showed similarity with G. sinense (85%) at conserved motifs of three main NRPS domains. Phylogenetic analysis of NRPS peptide sequences demonstrated that NRPS of G. boninense belongs to the type VI siderophore family. The roots of 6-month-old oil palm seedlings were artificially inoculated for studying NRPS gene expression and disease severity in the greenhouse. The correlation between high disease severity (50%) and high expression (67-fold) of G. boninense NRPS gene at 4 months after inoculation and above indicated that this gene played a significant role in the advancement of BSR disease. Overall, these findings increase our knowledge on the gene structure of NRPS in G. boninense and its involvement in BSR pathogenesis as an effector gene.

Ganoderma leucocontextum, a newly identified species from the Tibetan Plateau, has been mainly studied for its polysaccharides and triterpenoids, with no prior reports on fungal immunomodulatory proteins (FIPs). This study explores the biological activity of FIP-gle2, cloned from G. leucocontextum and expressed in Pichia pastoris. The effects and mechanisms of recombinant FIP-gle2 (rFIP-gle2) on cell activity and melanin synthesis in mouse melanoma B16-F10 cells were investigated in vitro. The results showed that the FIP-gle2 gene, with an open reading frame (ORF) of 333 bp, encodes a 111-amino acid polypeptide with a molecular weight of 12.60 kDa and an isoelectric point of 4.48. We achieved a yield of 184.18 mg/L of rFIP-gle2. In vitro functional experiments showed that rFIP-gle2 significantly inhibited the proliferation of B16-F10 melanoma cells and induced apoptosis in a dose-dependent manner, particularly at concentrations above 1 μg/mL. At 3 μg/mL, rFIP-gle2 effectively inhibited tyrosinase activity and reduced melanin content, downregulating microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF), tyrosinase (TYR), and tyrosinase-related proteins (TRP-1 and TRP-2). Furthermore, RNA-seq analysis indicated that differentially expressed genes in treated cells were enriched in the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway, with Western blotting confirming enhanced phosphorylation of JNK, ERK, and p38 proteins. Thus, P. pastoris is an effective host for rFIP-gle2 production, which shows potential for applications in pharmaceuticals, cosmeceuticals, and food fields.