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This study presents a practical control method for electric vehicle (EV) charging optimisation for detached and attached houses. The developed EV charging control method utilises real-time measurements to minimise charging costs of up to two EVs in a single household. Since some Finnish distribution system operators have already launched peak power-based distribution tariffs for small-scale customers and because there is a lot of discussion on this kind of tariff development, the control method considers peak power-based charges. Additionally, the proposed smart charging control method utilises charging current measurements as feedback to reallocate unused charging capacity if an EV does not utilise the whole capacity allocated for it. The control method is implemented and tested with commercial EVs. The conducted hardware-in-the-loop simulations and measurements confirm that the control method works as intended. The proposed smart charging control reduces EV charging electricity distribution costs around 60% when compared to the uncontrolled EV charging.

As today's power grid is evolving into a densely interconnected cyber‐physical system (CPS), a high fidelity and multifaceted testbed environment is needed to perform cybersecurity experiments in a realistic grid environment. Traditional standalone CPS testbeds lack the ability to emulate complex cyber‐physical interdependencies between multiple smart grid domains in a real‐time environment. Therefore, there are ongoing research and development (R&D) efforts to develop an interconnected CPS testbed by sharing geographically dispersed testbed resources to perform distributed simulation while analysing simulation fidelity. This paper presents a networked federation testbed for cybersecurity evaluation of today's and emerging smart grid environments. Specifically, it presents two novel testbed architectures, including cyber federation and cyber‐physical federation, identifies R&D applications, and also describes testbed building blocks with experimental case studies. It also presents a novel co‐simulation interface algorithm to facilitate distributed simulation within cyber‐physical federation. The resources available at the PowerCyber CPS security testbed at Iowa State University (ISU) and the US Army Research Laboratory are utilised to develop this platform for performing multiple experimental case studies pertaining to wide‐area protection and control applications in power system. Finally, experimental results are presented to analyse the simulation fidelity and real‐time performance of the testbed federation.

A hybrid electric vehicle is powered by: the internal combustion engine and the battery-powered electric motor. These sources have specific operational characteristics, and it is necessary to match these characteristics for the efficient and smooth functioning of the vehicle. The nonlinearity and uncertainties in hybrid electric vehicle model require an intelligent controller to control the energy sharing between battery and engine. In this work, a fuzzy logic-enabled energy management strategy for the hybrid electric vehicle based on torque demand, battery state of charge and regenerative braking is designed and implemented. The proposed energy management strategy allows engine and motor to maneuver in their efficient operating regions. The designed hybrid electric vehicle and its control strategy follow the driver commands and regulations on vehicle performance and liquid fuel consumption. MATLAB/Simulink is used to carry out simulations, and then, the whole system is validated in real time on hardware-in-the-loop testing platform. This work employs an FPGA-based MicroLabBox hardware controller to validate real-time behavior. The proposed scheme results in better fuel economy, faster response and almost nil mismatch between desired and achieved vehicle speeds.

This paper presents the use of real-time digital simulator (RTDS) and hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) methods for the validation of an energy management system designed for real low-voltage (LV) distribution networks with a high penetration of renewable energy sources. The system is used to address voltage violations and current overloading issues and allows the network operator to maintain safe and controllable network operations. The applied control strategy and the system software were verified by means of simulations. In this paper, the next stage of system validation using the HIL method is presented. A testbed was designed and developed to test the operation of prototype controllers of the system in flexible and reproducible conditions before installing them in the network. The presented testing platform not only includes the LV network simulator with the power amplifiers needed for closed-loop setup but also additional elements of a real network to which the system is dedicated, i.e., the advanced metering infrastructure, photovoltaic source, and energy storage inverters and load devices. Furthermore, the real cellular network of the distribution network operator is used in the communication between the controllers. In addition, the article contains discussions on communication issues, including limitations related to selected protocols. Finally, examples of the experimental validation of the controller prototypes are presented.

Traditional industrial robots' force control systems exhibit limited practicality and cost-effectiveness in manufacturing complex parts. Therefore, this paper proposes an open CNC force control simulation system based on the “PLC + CNC force control technical table (FCTT)”, integrating both hardware and software components. The hardware includes PLC and CNC force control technology, drivers and servo systems, sensor systems, and system control circuits. The software is implemented in C++ with a modular design, while the upper and lower computers communicate primarily via a standard PCI bus. The corresponding CNC machine control technology receives application program commands from the upper computer. Then, it performs motion control according to the corresponding CNC force, driving the servo system to complete the corresponding motion control commands. This system solves the problem of query speed in the force control system, improving its responsiveness and reliability. The design of complex curved parts was validated using this system, and the results showed that the CNC force control system proposed in this paper improved by about 10% compared to traditional systems in terms of CNC force accuracy, rotation accuracy, surface roughness, and matching between virtual and actual values, demonstrating significant advantages.

This paper proposes a real-time testing scheme for individual modules of Modular Multi-level Converters (MMCs), which are used in VSC-HVDC systems and high-voltage electric motor drives. In MMCs for voltage-source HVDCs, multiple submodules (SMs) are connected in series to form one arm. For MMCs comprising hundreds of identical submodules connected in series, testing the entire system is highly time-consuming and costly, while the proposed method enables real-time testing of each submodule, thereby significantly reducing overall system development cost and time. This study presents a method for configuring one SM from the series-connected SMs with an external circuit, allowing it to be tested under actual MMC operating conditions. The proposed method is comprehensively validated via Hardware-in-the-Loop Simulation (HILS), incorporating operability assessments and a real-time implementation of the circuit model to verify its practical applicability.

The design of modern industrial products is further improved through the hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) simulation. Realistic simulation is enabled by the closed loop between the hardware under test (HUT) and real-time simulation. Such a system involves a field programmable gate array (FPGA) and digital signal processor (DSP). An HIL model can bypass serious damage to the real object, reduce debugging cost, and, finally, reduce the comprehensive effort during the testing. This paper provides a historical overview of HIL simulations through different engineering challenges, i.e., within automotive, power electronics systems, and different industrial drives. Various platforms, such as National Instruments, dSPACE, Typhoon HIL, or MATLAB Simulink Real-Time toolboxes and Speedgoat hardware systems, offer a powerful tool for efficient and successful investigations in different fields. Therefore, HIL simulation practice must begin already during the university’s education process to prepare the students for professional engagements in the industry, which was also verified experimentally at the end of the paper.

Nowadays, the power system is evolving into a complex cyber physical system with the closely merged physical system, information system, and communication network. It is critical to understand the connections between the power and cyber systems, and the potential impact of cyber vulnerability. In this study, a flexible hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) testbed is proposed for studying the cyber physical power system. By using the flexible interface, various co-simulation systems for different purposes are generated. Based on this testbed, three sample co-simulators are built as proofs. First, a HIL power and communication co-simulator with non-real-time synchronisation mechanism is introduced, and a case of false data injection attack on automation voltage control is studied. Then, a real-time power and communication HIL co-simulator is introduced, and a case considering the impact of communication bit error on the stability control system is simulated to demonstrate the performance of stability control equipment. Finally, another co-simulator for simulating the actual cyber-attack on the stability control system is introduced, and a case of a man-in-the-middle attack on the data link is simulated to demonstrate the impact of cyber-attack on the stability control system.

The power window control is the mechanism to automatically control the upward and downward movement of power window in vehicles by application of position, current, flexi force and temperature sensor as replacement of conventional or mechanical controlled hand crank based system. The paper focuses on model based development and testing of miniaturized scale controller for automotive smart power window, hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) testing using dSPACE simulator. The experimental work is carried out for the same to provide the desired precision due to the testing limitation in real time vehicle. The HIL set up is utilized to analyze the different manual and sensory inputs functionalities in Indian driving environment. The paper presented the DC motor interfacing to the controller as the main building block of the power window system. The motor takes the decision based on the decision tree classifier (DTC) machine learning algorithm and control movements in desired direction by condition inputs from decision tree. The system behavior is completely based on the algorithm, dSPACE testing environment supports the window functionality and its movement control in upward, downward direction and the results showed that the developed system is effective in identifying obstacle. The decision tree test set and training set data depicts that 93%-sampled results are valid outcome and 7% are invalid under 12 different test observations.

Wheeled bipedal robots are promising for industrial mobility because they combine tight turning, agile balancing, and efficient rolling. Their inherently unstable and underactuated dynamics make reliable reference tracking challenging, particularly in the presence of sustained external disturbances and modeling errors. This paper presents a systematic modeling and control study using a three-degrees-of-freedom sagittal plane representation derived from the original six-degrees-of-freedom dynamics. Two linear tracking controllers are designed and compared: a full state feedback tracking controller and a linear quadratic servo controller with integral action. Practical performance is validated through real-time hardware in the loop simulation, where the controller runs on embedded hardware and the plant is executed on a real-time target including discrete time-sampling effects and analog input output communication noise associated with signal transmission. The results show that both controllers achieve stabilization, while the comparative HILS results reveal a trade-off rather than a uniformly superior controller. The full state feedback controller often yields lower finite-horizon position tracking errors, whereas the linear quadratic servo controller provides tighter body-pitch regulation and the more reliable removal of steady-state offset under sustained constant disturbances. These results demonstrate the feasibility of optimal servo control on cost-effective embedded platforms and indicate that controller selection should depend on the desired balance, considering tracking accuracy, disturbance rejection, convergence behavior, and actuator usage.