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This study presents a practical control method for electric vehicle (EV) charging optimisation for detached and attached houses. The developed EV charging control method utilises real‐time measurements to minimise charging costs of up to two EVs in a single household. Since some Finnish distribution system operators have already launched peak power‐based distribution tariffs for small‐scale customers and because there is a lot of discussion on this kind of tariff development, the control method considers peak power‐based charges. Additionally, the proposed smart charging control method utilises charging current measurements as feedback to reallocate unused charging capacity if an EV does not utilise the whole capacity allocated for it. The control method is implemented and tested with commercial EVs. The conducted hardware‐in‐the‐loop simulations and measurements confirm that the control method works as intended. The proposed smart charging control reduces EV charging electricity distribution costs around 60% when compared to the uncontrolled EV charging.

This paper presents the use of real-time digital simulator (RTDS) and hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) methods for the validation of an energy management system designed for real low-voltage (LV) distribution networks with a high penetration of renewable energy sources. The system is used to address voltage violations and current overloading issues and allows the network operator to maintain safe and controllable network operations. The applied control strategy and the system software were verified by means of simulations. In this paper, the next stage of system validation using the HIL method is presented. A testbed was designed and developed to test the operation of prototype controllers of the system in flexible and reproducible conditions before installing them in the network. The presented testing platform not only includes the LV network simulator with the power amplifiers needed for closed-loop setup but also additional elements of a real network to which the system is dedicated, i.e., the advanced metering infrastructure, photovoltaic source, and energy storage inverters and load devices. Furthermore, the real cellular network of the distribution network operator is used in the communication between the controllers. In addition, the article contains discussions on communication issues, including limitations related to selected protocols. Finally, examples of the experimental validation of the controller prototypes are presented.

Traditional industrial robots' force control systems exhibit limited practicality and cost-effectiveness in manufacturing complex parts. Therefore, this paper proposes an open CNC force control simulation system based on the “PLC + CNC force control technical table (FCTT)”, integrating both hardware and software components. The hardware includes PLC and CNC force control technology, drivers and servo systems, sensor systems, and system control circuits. The software is implemented in C++ with a modular design, while the upper and lower computers communicate primarily via a standard PCI bus. The corresponding CNC machine control technology receives application program commands from the upper computer. Then, it performs motion control according to the corresponding CNC force, driving the servo system to complete the corresponding motion control commands. This system solves the problem of query speed in the force control system, improving its responsiveness and reliability. The design of complex curved parts was validated using this system, and the results showed that the CNC force control system proposed in this paper improved by about 10% compared to traditional systems in terms of CNC force accuracy, rotation accuracy, surface roughness, and matching between virtual and actual values, demonstrating significant advantages.

This paper proposes a real-time testing scheme for individual modules of Modular Multi-level Converters (MMCs), which are used in VSC-HVDC systems and high-voltage electric motor drives. In MMCs for voltage-source HVDCs, multiple submodules (SMs) are connected in series to form one arm. For MMCs comprising hundreds of identical submodules connected in series, testing the entire system is highly time-consuming and costly, while the proposed method enables real-time testing of each submodule, thereby significantly reducing overall system development cost and time. This study presents a method for configuring one SM from the series-connected SMs with an external circuit, allowing it to be tested under actual MMC operating conditions. The proposed method is comprehensively validated via Hardware-in-the-Loop Simulation (HILS), incorporating operability assessments and a real-time implementation of the circuit model to verify its practical applicability.

Validating the behavior of a complex system is a fundamental step in the development process to avoid costly damages and dangerous circumstances. Such a phase requires a realistic simulation of the system and the reproduction of the full operative scenario, including the environment with all the possible events and situations in which the system could get into. Although several tools exist to design, simulate and validate specific functions, checking the overall system behavior in an operative scenario usually requires the development of custom simulation frameworks. These are often tailored to the specific system under study, with the consequence that they are either incomplete or not fully reusable for other projects. This paper presents a modular hardware-in-the-loop development simulation framework that allows realistic simulation, supporting multi-vehicle scenario and comprehending tools for reproducing realistic testing environments with advanced sensors. A case of study is presented to show the employment of the proposed framework for testing the behavior of unmanned vehicles, focusing on the timing properties of the system. Category (2).

Nowadays, the power system is evolving into a complex cyber physical system with the closely merged physical system, information system, and communication network. It is critical to understand the connections between the power and cyber systems, and the potential impact of cyber vulnerability. In this study, a flexible hardware‐in‐the‐loop (HIL) testbed is proposed for studying the cyber physical power system. By using the flexible interface, various co‐simulation systems for different purposes are generated. Based on this testbed, three sample co‐simulators are built as proofs. First, a HIL power and communication co‐simulator with non‐real‐time synchronisation mechanism is introduced, and a case of false data injection attack on automation voltage control is studied. Then, a real‐time power and communication HIL co‐simulator is introduced, and a case considering the impact of communication bit error on the stability control system is simulated to demonstrate the performance of stability control equipment. Finally, another co‐simulator for simulating the actual cyber‐attack on the stability control system is introduced, and a case of a man‐in‐the‐middle attack on the data link is simulated to demonstrate the impact of cyber‐attack on the stability control system.

As stability is one of the most important property of any system, studying it is paramount when performing a power-hardware-in-the-loop simulation in an experimental setup. To guarantee the proper operation of such a system, a thorough understanding of the critical issues regarding the dynamics of the power amplifier, the real-time simulated system and the hardware under test is required. Thus, this paper provides a detailed analysis of the correct design of the real-time simulation modeling for the secure and reliable execution of power-hardware-in-the-loop simulations involving power electronic devices in an experimental setup. Specifically, the stability region of a power-hardware-in-the-loop simulation in an experimental AC microgrid setup involving two parallel three-phase grid-following inverters with LCL filters is studied. Through experimental testing, the stability boundaries of the power-hardware-in-the-loop simulation in the experimental setup is determined, demonstrating a direct relationship between the short-circuit ratio of the utility grid and the cutoff frequency of the feedback current filter. Experimental evidence confirms the capability of the AC microgrid setup to achieve smooth transitions between diverse operating conditions and determine stability boundaries with parameter variations. This research provides practical design guidelines for modeling and the real-time simulation to ensure stability in the power-hardware-in-the-loop simulations in experimental setups involving actual grid-following inverters, specifically using an Opal-RT platform with a voltage-source ideal transformer model and parameter variations in the short-circuit ratio from 2 to 20, the line impedance ratio X/R from 7 to 10, and the feedback-current-filter cutoff frequency from 100 to 1000 kHz.

Performance evaluation of avionics software in conjunction with flight hardware is a critical process carried out using a specialized Hardware-In-Loop Simulation (HILS) platform. This platform integrates essential flight subsystems, such as actuators and navigation systems, to validate their performance under real-time conditions. A unique facility, the Flight Motion Simulator (FMS), plays a vital role in testing the dynamic behavior of navigation systems. However, challenges arise due to the physical separation of critical equipment like the FMS and actuator setups from the main HILS Test-bed, necessitating their integration across large distances. To address this, a remote simulation Test-bed has been designed and developed utilising the emerging MIL-STD 1773 protocol with fiber optics-based communication. This approach ensures real-time data transfer with minimal latency, preserving the high-performance requirements of HILS. The Fiber Optics Data Acquisition System (FODAS) facilitates seamless integration of remote flight subsystems with the HILS Test-bed, eliminating delays associated with relocating equipment and re-establishing setups. Additionally, it enables the connection of flight subsystems directly from integration hangers, enhancing testing efficiency and flexibility. This research outlines the design and development methodology of the MIL-STD 1773-based FODAS system integrated with the HILS Test-bed. It further provides performance analysis, advantages, and practical results from its implementation, demonstrating the system’s capability to overcome existing limitations while improving operational efficiency

In this paper, a Damping Impedance Method (DIM)-applied power Hardware-in-the-Loop Simulation (HILS) test-bed is proposed to test the stability of a Low Voltage DC (LVDC) grid composed of multiple converters. The impedance interaction between the source-side system and load-side system which consists of the LVDC grid is analyzed by the Extra Element Theorem. Furthermore, the stability of the LVDC Grid is assessed by using the Opposing Argument Criterion. Using those analyses, the power HILS test-bed is implemented using the DIM. This approach leverages the CPL characteristics of the load-side system to propose an offline design method for the damping impedance used in the DIM, which can reduce implementation complexity and can obtain an accurate power HILS test-bed. Finally, the accuracy and effectiveness of the proposed power HILS test-bed are verified using a 500-W Dual-Active-Bridge converter.

The design of modern industrial products is further improved through the hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) simulation. Realistic simulation is enabled by the closed loop between the hardware under test (HUT) and real-time simulation. Such a system involves a field programmable gate array (FPGA) and digital signal processor (DSP). An HIL model can bypass serious damage to the real object, reduce debugging cost, and, finally, reduce the comprehensive effort during the testing. This paper provides a historical overview of HIL simulations through different engineering challenges, i.e., within automotive, power electronics systems, and different industrial drives. Various platforms, such as National Instruments, dSPACE, Typhoon HIL, or MATLAB Simulink Real-Time toolboxes and Speedgoat hardware systems, offer a powerful tool for efficient and successful investigations in different fields. Therefore, HIL simulation practice must begin already during the university’s education process to prepare the students for professional engagements in the industry, which was also verified experimentally at the end of the paper.