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Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR), caused by Bovine alphaherpesvirus 1 (BoHV-1), is a disease of cattle responsible for significant economic losses worldwide. IBR is under certain communitarian regulations. Every member state can approve its own national IBR control program for the entire territory – or part of it – and can demand additional guarantees for bovids destined to its territory; therefore, every member state can be officially declared as entirely or partly IBR-free. The aim of this review is to provide an overview of IBR control and eradication programs in European countries. BoHV-1 control schemes were first introduced in the late 1970s, mainly in Northern and Central Europe. Depending on the seroprevalence rate, control strategies rely on identification and removal of seropositive animals or the use of glycoprotein E (gE)-deleted marker vaccines in infected herds. The implementation of a novel law for disease eradication at the EU level and of a European IBR data flow could make the goal of IBR eradication in all European countries easier to achieve.

Bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) and infectious bovine rhinotracheitis virus (IBRV) are key components of the bovine respiratory disease complex (BRDC) in China's cross-regional feeder system. We quantified antibody and antigen positivity and identified epidemiological determinants across provinces, seasons, years, and clinical status. We collected 7592 sera and 6651 clinical specimens from five provinces spanning pretransport (north) and posttransport (southwest) settings across all seasons from 2022 to 2024. Seroprevalence and antigen prevalence were summarized by province, year, season, and clinical status. Logistic regression estimated adjusted odds ratios (aORs) for single-virus outcomes; multinomial models (adjusted relative risk ratios [aRRRs]) and modified Poisson models (adjusted prevalence ratios [aPRs]) evaluated antibody coinfection. Overall, 78.85% of sera were BVDV-antibody positive (95% CI 77.99-79.69) and 70.11% were IBRV-antibody positive (95% CI 69.07-71.14). Seroprevalence was higher in the southwest (Sichuan/Chongqing) than in the north (Hebei/Inner Mongolia/Liaoning), rose from 2022 to 2024, and peaked in winter; cattle without clinical signs showed higher seroprevalence than symptomatic animals. Antigen positivity was lower overall-BVDV 7.01% (95% CI 6.40-7.65) and IBRV 5.79% (95% CI 5.24-6.38)-and was greater in the southwest and in winter. In multivariable models, BVDV seropositivity was strongly associated with residence in Sichuan (aOR 2.37, 95% CI 1.89-2.99) and Chongqing (aOR 2.86, 95% CI 2.10-3.91) versus Hebei, and with winter (aOR 1.64, 95% CI 1.38-1.96) versus spring; clinical signs were inversely associated (aOR 0.83, 95% CI 0.73-0.95). For antigens, IBRV positivity increased in 2024 vs. 2022 (aOR 1.53, 95% CI 1.16-2.02) and was higher in clinically symptomatic cattle (aOR 1.96, 95% CI 1.54-2.50). Coinfection analyses showed the greatest departure from the double-negative reference for the BVDV-/IBRV+ category (aRRR 0.500, 95% CI 0.318-0.785;   < 0.01). Under China's cross-regional finishing model, BVDV/IBRV circulate widely, with higher risk in southwestern provinces, in winter, and in recent years. Antigen detection concentrates among symptomatic cattle, underscoring the value of paired serology-PCR at intake and calendar-aware vaccination and management before winter moves. These findings support risk-based BRDC prevention aligned to province and season.

The objective of this study was to compare reproductive protection in cattle against bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) and bovine herpesvirus 1 (BoHV-1) provided by annual revaccination with multivalent modified-live viral (MLV) vaccine or multivalent combination viral (CV) vaccine containing temperature-sensitive modified-live BoHV-1 and killed BVDV when MLV vaccines were given pre-breeding to nulliparous heifers. Seventy-five beef heifers were allocated into treatment groups A (n=30; two MLV doses pre-breeding, annual revaccination with MLV vaccine), B (n=30; two MLV doses pre-breeding, annual revaccination with CV vaccine) and C (n=15; saline in lieu of vaccine). Heifers were administered treatments on days 0 (weaning), 183 (pre-breeding), 366 (first gestation), and 738 (second gestation). After first calving, primiparous cows were bred, with pregnancy assessment on day 715. At that time, 24 group A heifers (23 pregnancies), 23 group B heifers (22 pregnancies), and 15 group C heifers (15 pregnancies) were commingled with six persistently infected (PI) cattle for 16days. Ninety-nine days after PI removal, cows were intravenously inoculated with BoHV-1. All fetuses and live offspring were assessed for BVDV and BoHV-1. Abortions occurred in 3/23 group A cows, 1/22 group B cows, and 11/15 group C cows. Fetal infection with BVDV or BoHV-1 occurred in 4/23 group A offspring, 0/22 group B offspring, and 15/15 group C offspring. This research demonstrates efficacy of administering two pre-breeding doses of MLV vaccine with annual revaccination using CV vaccine to prevent fetal loss due to exposure to BVDV and BoHV-1.

Bovine alphaherpesvirus 1 (BoHV-1) is the causative agent of infectious bovine rhinotracheitis and reproductive disorders causing significant economic losses in the cattle industry. Both BoHV-1 glycoproteins B (gB) and D (gD) are targets of neutralizing antibodies and desirable antigens for subunit vaccine. In this study, a bivalent subunit vaccine was generated based on the ectodomain of gD and gB expressed by baculoviruses system. Compared with the inactivated vaccine, the bivalent subunit vaccine induced higher neutralizing antibody levels against both the BoHV-1 reference strain and the virulent BoHV-1 field strain. Following intranasally challenge with BoHV-1 J2303, the clinical signs and virus excretion were significantly reduced in rabbits vaccinated with this subunit vaccine whereas severe clinical symptoms appeared in the non-vaccinated rabbits, indicating that the bivalent subunit vaccine provides complete protection against virulent BoHV-1 infection. Considering that the respiratory symptoms caused by J2303 in rabbits is highly similar and even identical to those of cattle, our findings suggest that the bivalent subunit vaccine based on combination of gD with gB protein have promising application to BoHV-1control programs.

Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis (IBR) is endemic in India, causing significant losses to dairy enterprises. Until recently, the unavailability of an indigenously manufactured vaccine and the high cost of imported vaccines limited national vaccination efforts. However, an indigenously developed and manufactured inactivated DIVA vaccine has now become available. The exact strategies that other countries have employed for the successful control of IBR may not be applicable in India due to the differences in the production systems and the social values. Hence, we have employed linear deterministic modeling to study the benefits, both in terms of the protection of the animals from the disease and the costs, of vaccination against IBR towards proposing an optimal strategy for immunization-based control of the disease in India. Our findings emphasize the need for proper vaccination practices, appropriate farm biosecurity measures, and biannual re-vaccinations to achieve the desired endpoints in a vaccination program. Based on our findings, a vaccination program aiming for primary vaccination with two doses followed by continuing bi-annual re-vaccination with a single dose to achieve 70% vaccination coverage in the cattle population can be recommended for the control of IBR in India.

Bovine herpesvirus type 1 (BoHV-1) establishes lifelong latency in trigeminal ganglionic (TG) neurons following intranasal and ocular infection in cattle. Periodically, the latent virus reactivates in the TG due to stress and is transported anterogradely to nerve endings in the nasal epithelium, where the virus replicates and sheds. Consequently, BoHV-1 is transmitted to susceptible animals and maintained in the cattle population. Modified live BoHV-1 vaccine strains (BoHV-1 MLV) also have a similar latency reactivation. Therefore, they circulate and are maintained in cattle herds. Additionally, they can regain virulence and cause vaccine outbreaks because they mutate and recombine with other circulating field wild-type (wt) strains. Recently, we constructed a BoHV-1 quadruple mutant virus (BoHV-1qmv) that lacks immune evasive properties due to UL49.5 and glycoprotein G (gG) deletions. In addition, it also lacks the gE cytoplasmic tail (gE CT) and Us9 gene sequences designed to make it safe, increase its vaccine efficacy against BoHV-1, and restrict its anterograde neuronal transport noted above. Further, we engineered the BoHV-1qmv-vector to serve as a subunit vaccine against the Rift Valley fever virus (BoHV-1qmv Sub-RVFV) (doi: 10.3390/v15112183). In this study, we determined the latency reactivation and nasal virus shedding properties of BoHV-1qmv (vector) and BoHV-1qmv-vectored subunit RVFV (BoHV-1qmv sub-RVFV) vaccine virus in calves in comparison to the BoHV-1 wild-type (wt) following intranasal inoculation. The real-time PCR results showed that BoHV-1 wt- but not the BoHV-1qmv vector- and BoHV-1qmv Sub-RVFV-inoculated calves shed virus in the nose following dexamethasone-induced latency reactivation; however, like the BoHV-1 wt, both the BoHV-1qmv vector and BoHV-1qmv Sub-RVFV viruses established latency, were reactivated, and replicated in the TG neurons. These results are consistent with the anterograde neurotransport function of the gE CT and Us9 sequences, which are deleted in the BoHV-1qmv and BoHV-1qmv Sub-RVFV.

To date, in countries where infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR) is widespread, its control is associated with deleted marker vaccines. These products lack one or more genes responsible for the synthesis of glycoproteins or enzymes. In Europe, the most widely used marker vaccine is one in which glycoprotein E (gE−) is deleted, and it is marketed in a killed or modified-live form. Using this type of immunization, it is possible to differentiate vaccinated animals (gE−) from those infected or injected with non-deleted (gE+) products using diagnostic tests specific for gE. The disadvantage of using modified-live gE-products is that they may remain latent in immunized animals and be reactivated or excreted following an immunosuppressive stimulus. For this reason, in the last few years, a new marker vaccine became commercially available containing a double deletion related to genes coding for gE and the synthesis of the thymidine-kinase (tk) enzyme, the latter being associated with the reduction of the neurotropism, latency, and reactivation of the vaccine virus. Intramuscularly and intranasally administered marker products induce a humoral immune response; however, the mother-to-calf antibody kinetics after vaccination with marker vaccines is poorly understood. This review discusses several published articles on this topic.

Regulation (EU) 2016/429 introduces comprehensive guidelines for managing transmissible animal diseases, including zoonoses. The subsequent Commission Implementing Regulation 2018/1882 categorizes these diseases into five groups, each with specific responses, ranging from mandatory eradication to optional eradication or surveillance. Key regulatory priorities include enhanced animal traceability, biosecurity, wildlife pathogen control, sustainable farming practices, and minimizing the impact of diseases on public health, animal health, and the environment. These objectives align with the European Green Deal, the Farm to Fork Strategy, the One Health approach, and the ongoing revaluation of European Inner Areas. They, including the Molise Region in Italy, are often remote, face service accessibility challenges, and suffer from depopulation and farm abandonment. Nonetheless, they hold significant potential for agropastoral and agri-food activities that can support tourism, the commercialization of local products, and recreational pursuits. Implementing optional programmes for animal diseases and zoonoses not subject to mandatory eradication could help the farms of these areas to mitigate productivity losses due to diseases like Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis and Paratuberculosis. The latter is a suspected zoonosis potentially linked to Crohn’s disease in humans. Optional programmes could enhance economic returns, counteract depopulation, support animal welfare and pasture conservation, and reduce the risk of exposure to zoonotic diseases for residents and tourists attracted by the ecological appeal of these areas.

Our objectives were to evaluate the pre- and postweaning growth and measurements of innate and humoral immune response of beef calves born to cows fed 70 or 100% of NEm requirements during the last 40 d of gestation. On d 0 (approximately 40 d before calving), 30 multiparous Angus cows pregnant to embryo transfer (BW = 631 ± 15 kg; age = 5.2 ± 0.98 yr; BCS = 6.3 ± 0.12) were randomly allocated into 1 of 10 drylot pens (3 cows/pen). Treatments were randomly assigned to pens (5 pens/treatment) and consisted of cows limit-fed (d 0 to calving) isonitrogenous, total-mixed diets formulated to provide 100 (CTRL) or 70% (REST) of daily NEm requirements of a 630-kg beef cow at 8 mo of gestation. Immediately after calving, all cow-calf pairs were combined into a single management group and rotationally grazed on tall fescue pastures (6 pastures; 22 ha/pasture) until weaning (d 266). All calves were assigned to a 40-d preconditioning period in a drylot from d 266 to 306 and vaccinated against infectious bovine rhinotracheitis, bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV), , and spp. on d 273 and 287. Blood samples from jugular vein were collected from cows on d 0, 17, and 35 and from calves within 12 h of birth and on d 266, 273, 274, 276, 279, and 287. By design, REST cows consumed less ( ≤ 0.002) total DMI, TDN, and NEm but had similar CP intake ( = 0.67), which tended ( = 0.06) to increase BW loss from d 0 to calving, than CTRL cows (-1.09 vs. -0.70 ± 0.14 kg/d, respectively). However, gestational NEm intake did not affect ( ≥ 0.30) plasma concentrations of cortisol, insulin, and glucose during gestation and BCS at calving as well as postcalving pregnancy rate, BW, and BCS change of cows. Calf serum IgG concentrations and plasma concentrations of haptoglobin and cortisol at birth as well as calf pre- and postweaning BW and ADG did not differ ( ≥ 0.15) between calves born to REST and CTRL cows. However, calf postweaning overall plasma concentrations of cortisol; plasma haptoglobin concentrations on d 274, 276, and 279; and serum BVDV-1a titers on d 306 were less for REST calves than for CTRL calves ( ≤ 0.05). Hence, a NEm restriction to 70% of daily requirements during the last 40 d of gestation had minimal effects on cow precalving growth and did not affect postcalving cow growth and reproductive performance. However, it decreased postweaning vaccination-induced humoral immunity, inflammatory, and physiological stress responses of calves.

Bovine herpes virus 1 (BHV-1) is primarily associated with clinical syndromes such as rhinotracheitis, pustular vulvovaginitis and balanoposthitis, abortion, infertility, conjunctivitis and encephalitis in bovine species. The main sources of infection are the nasal exudates and the respiratory droplets, genital secretions, semen, fetal fluids and tissues. The BHV-1 virus can become latent following a primary infection with a field isolate or vaccination with an attenuated strain. The viral genomic DNA has been demonstrated in the sensory ganglia of the trigeminal nerve in infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR) and in sacral spinal ganglia in pustular vulvovaginitis and balanoposthitis cases. BHV-1 infections can be diagnosed by detection of virus or virus components and antibody by serological tests or by detection of genomic DNA by polymerase chain reaction (PCR), nucleic acid hybridization and sequencing. Inactivated vaccines and modified live virus vaccines are used for prevention of BHV-1 infections in cattle; subunit vaccines and marker vaccines are under investigation.