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The aim of this study was to validate previously developed equations to predict maximal oxygen uptake () from near‐infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) during and after a period of limb ischaemia. Moreover, NIRS recovery kinetics after steady‐state exercise (SSE) could be used to monitor and exercise intensity thresholds. Seventeen healthy adults completed a 3 min 300 mmHg pressure cuff occlusion to measure the occlusion slope, relative rate of muscle reoxygenation at 10 s (Rep 10s), baseline ( R bl ), peak ( R peak ) and area under the curve (AUC 2min ). SSE was performed at 100 W (SSE1) and 150 W (SSE2) to determine the relative rate of muscle reoxygenation ( R 1 bl and R 2 bl ). Thereafter, incremental maximal cycling was used to determine , ventilatory thresholds (VTs) and gross efficiencies (GEs). The values of Rep 10s ( r  = 0.61, p  = 0.02), R bl ( r  = 0.53, p  = 0.04), R peak ( r  = 0.60, p  = 0.02), AUC 2min ( r  = 0.67, p  < 0.01) and occlusion slope ( r  = −0.68, p  = 0.005) were correlated with absolute . After steady‐state cycling, SSE1 R bl was correlated with absolute ( r  = 0.67, p  = 0.01) and relative ( r  = 0.60, p  = 0.02), in addition to absolute VT1 ( r  = 0.66, p  = 0.01) and relative VT1 ( r  = 0.61 p  = 0.02). The SSE2 R bl was correlated with absolute ( r  = 0.58, p  = 0.02), relative ( r  = 0.63, p  = 0.02), absolute VT2 ( r  = 0.56, p  = 0.03), relative VT2 ( r  = 0.62, p  = 0.01) and GE2 ( r  = 0.56, p  = 0.03). Using previously defined prediction equations, could be predicted with a modest degree of typical error (Rep 10s, 521 mL min −1 ; R peak , 525 mL min −1 ; slope, 393 mL min −1 ). NIRS kinetic profiles during or after a period of ischaemia or after SSE are related to and exercise intensity thresholds. Nonetheless, their predictive validity is limited to a broad estimate of the aerobic fitness of an individual. What is the central question of this study? We aimed to validate previously developed equations to predict maximal oxygen uptake from near‐infrared spectroscopy during and after limb ischaemia. Furthermore, we investigated muscle oxygenation recovery kinetics post‐exercise to determine VO2max and ventilarory threshold. What is the main finding and its importance? Muscle oxygenation kinetic profiles during or after ischaemia had modest predictive validity, with the occlusion slope displaying the least source of error. The reperfusion rate of muscle oxygenation recovery kinetics after 3 min of steady‐state exercise, both low and moderate intensity, was associated with maximal oxygen uptake. Muscle oxygenation recovery kinetics after low steady‐state exercise are a good determinant of the first ventilatory threshold, and after moderate steady‐state exercise a good predictor for the second ventilatory threshold.

Background: Astragali radix is a traditional herb known for its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory properties and has gained attention for its potential to support post-exercise recovery. However, the effects of long-term supplementation coupled with resistance training are not well understood. Methods: Twenty-four moderately active participants were recruited and randomly assigned to the Astragali radix supplementation (ASTRA, n = 13) or placebo (PLA, n = 11) group. All participants underwent 8 weeks of regular resistance training (3 sessions/week) and 2 weeks of intensified training (6 sessions/week). Results: Before (BAS), after 8 weeks of resistance training (RT), and at the end of the intensified training (IT), knee extensors’ maximal voluntary isometric contraction torque (MVIT), and leg press and leg extension one repetition max (1RM) were measured. Blood samples were collected to analyze inflammatory markers and testosterone. From BAS to after RT, MVIT, 1RM leg press, and 1RM leg extension increased in both ASTRA and PLA, with no differences between groups. After IT, MVIT, 1RM leg press and 1RM leg extension decreased in both ASTRA and PLA. CPK levels and myoglobin concentration increased while cortisol decreased significantly from BAS to IT, but no group differences were detected. TNF-α and IL-6 showed significant time × supplementation interactions, with lower values after IT in ASTRA compared to PLA. Conclusions: Astragali radix supplementation did not lead to additional benefits in muscle during the period of resistance training, nor did it prevent the decline in force following the intensified training period. However, Astragali radix supplementation prevented the increase in some inflammatory biomarkers, specifically TNF-α and IL-6, during the intensified period of training.

This study investigated the short-term effects of low-fat chocolate milk (LFCM) consumption on delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) and performance in female badminton players. Seven female badminton players (23 ± 1 years; height: 163.8 ± 4.1 cm; body mass: 58.7 ± 0.9 kg) were randomly assigned to 1 week of LFCM (500 mL) or placebo (water, 500 mL) consumption in a crossover design. Participants consumed LFCM or water immediately after each training session during the 1-week intervention. Performance variables (aerobic power, anaerobic power, agility, explosive power, and maximum handgrip strength) were assessed at two separate time points: pre and post-intervention (after 1 week). In addition, the Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) was used to assess DOMS before, immediately after, and at 24 and 48 h after each training session. There were significant time effects for aerobic power, upper body explosive power, minimum anaerobic power, and time to exhaustion (TTE), which significantly increased after LFCM consumption (p < 0.05). Moreover, relative and maximum lower body power significantly (p < 0.05) increased, while rating of perceived exertion (RPE) as well as DOMS in lower extremity muscles immediately after exercise significantly decreased after LFCM consumption compared to placebo (p < 0.05). There were no significant changes in maximum anaerobic power, agility, and maximum handgrip strength (p > 0.05). LFCM, as a post-exercise beverage, may help speed recovery in female badminton players leading to increased aerobic, anaerobic, and strength performance indices, increased TTE, and decreased muscle soreness and RPE.

Purpose This study aimed to evaluate the acute effects of beetroot extract and resveratrol supplementation (isolated and combined) on cardiac autonomic modulation and cardiovascular parameters recovery after exercise in individuals with coronary artery disease (CAD). Methods 14 males with CAD were submitted to 4 protocols consisting of 30 min (min) of rest, 30 min of aerobic exercise on a treadmill (60% of the heart rate reserve HRR), followed by 30 min of recovery. Before each protocol, the subjects consumed 500 mg of starch (placebo protocol), 500 mg of beetroot (beetroot protocol), or 500 mg of resveratrol (resveratrol protocol), or 500 mg of beetroot and 500 mg of resveratrol (combined protocol). Heart rate variability (HRV) indices and cardiorespiratory parameters were determined at different times during the protocols. Results Regarding HR, significantly higher values about rest in the placebo protocol at all recovery moments (1st to 30th min) were observed. Significant differences were observed in the other protocols (beetroot, resveratrol and combined) from the first to the 20th min recovery. For SBP, significantly higher values concerning rest were observed at the first minute of recovery for all protocols. No differences were found for the HRV index between time and protocols. Conclusions The single supplementation of beetroot and resveratrol (isolated and combined) did not alter HRV and cardiovascular parameter responses between protocols. The consumption of beetroot extract and resveratrol enhanced vagal modulation and heart rate recovery compared to rest.

Effective post-exercise recovery is vital for optimizing athletic performance, focusing on muscle repair, glycogen replenishment, rehydration, and inflammation management. This review explores the evolving trend from traditional supplements, such as protein, carbohydrates, creatine, and branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs), toward functional foods rich in bioactive compounds. Evidence highlights the benefits of functional foods like tart cherry juice (anthocyanins), turmeric-seasoned foods, and sources of omega-3 fatty acids, including fish, flaxseeds, chia seeds, and walnuts, for mitigating oxidative stress and inflammation. Additionally, probiotics and prebiotics support gut health and immune function, which are integral to effective recovery. Personalized nutrition, informed by genetic and metabolic profiling, is examined as a promising approach to tailor recovery strategies. A systematic search across PubMed, Web of Science, and Google Scholar (2000–2024) identified studies with high empirical rigor and relevance to recovery outcomes. Findings underscore the need for further research into nutrient interactions, dosage optimization, and long-term effects on athletic performance. Integrating functional foods with personalized nutrition presents a comprehensive framework for enhanced recovery, greater resilience to physical stress, and sustained performance in athletes.

We examined the influence of prior time‐trials performed at different altitudes on subsequent exercise in moderate hypoxia and associated cardiometabolic and neuromuscular responses. In normobaric hypoxia (simulated altitude 2000 m; FiO2: 0.163), 10 healthy males performed (1) an incremental test to exhaustion (VO2max_2000) and (2) a test to exhaustion at 80% of the power output associated to VO2max_2000 for a reference time (947 ± 336 sec). Thereafter, two sessions were conducted in a randomized order: a cycle time‐trial corresponding to the reference time (TT1) followed 22 min later (passive rest at 2000 m) by a 6‐min cycle time‐trial (TT2). TT1 was either performed at 2000 or 3500 m (FiO2: 0.135), while TT2 was always performed at 2000 m. As expected, during TT1, the mean power output (247 ± 42 vs. 227 ± 37 W; P < 0.001) was higher at 2000 than 3500 m. During TT2, the mean power output (256 ± 42 vs. 252 ± 36 W) did not differ between conditions. Before and after TT1, maximal isometric voluntary contraction torque in knee extensors (pooled conditions: −7.9 ± 8.4%; P < 0.01), voluntary activation (−4.1 ± 3.1%; P < 0.05), and indices of muscle contractility (peak twitch torque: −39.1 ± 11.9%; doublet torques at 100 Hz: −15.4 ± 8.9%; 10/100 Hz ratio: −25.8 ± 7.7%; all P < 0.001) were equally reduced at 2000 m or 3500 m. Irrespective of the altitude of TT1, neuromuscular function remained similarly depressed after TT1 both before and after TT2 at 2000 m. A prior time‐trial performed at different altitude influenced to the same extent performance and associated cardiometabolic and neuromuscular responses during a subsequent exercise in moderate hypoxia. Is there an effect of the fatigue induced by a first time‐trial performed at different altitude to the subsequent time‐trial?

Skeletal muscle is a highly plastic tissue that can adapt relatively rapidly to a range of stimuli. In response to novel mechanical loading, e.g. unaccustomed resistance exercise, myofibers are disrupted and undergo a period of ultrastructural remodeling to regain full physiological function, normally within 7 days. The mechanisms that underpin this remodeling are believed to be a combination of cellular processes including ubiquitin-proteasome/calpain-mediated degradation, immune cell infiltration, and satellite cell proliferation/differentiation. A relatively understudied system that has the potential to be a significant contributing mechanism to repair and recovery is the autophagolysosomal system, an intracellular process that degrades damaged and redundant cellular components to provide constituent metabolites for the resynthesis of new organelles and cellular structures. This review summarizes our current understanding of the autophagolysosomal system in the context of skeletal muscle repair and recovery. In addition, we also provide hypothetical models of how this system may interact with other processes involved in skeletal muscle remodeling and provide avenues for future research to improve our understanding of autophagy in human skeletal muscle.

This study compared the effects of cold water immersion (CWI) and hot water immersion (HWI) on muscle recovery following a muscle-damaging exercise protocol in women. Thirty healthy women (23.3 ± 2.9 years) were randomly assigned to either the CWI, HWI, or control (CON) groups. Participants completed a standardised exercise protocol (5 x 20 drop-jumps), followed by a 10 min recovery intervention (CWI, HWI, or CON) immediately and 120 min post-exercise. Physiological responses, including muscle oxygen saturation (SmO 2 ), core and skin temperature, and heart rate, were assessed at baseline, immediately post-exercise, after the first recovery intervention (postInt), and during 30 min follow-up. Recovery was evaluated through maximal voluntary isometric contraction, muscle swelling, muscle soreness ratings, and serum creatine kinase at baseline, 24, 48, and 72 h post-exercise. A mixed-effects model was used to account for repeated measures over time. Results showed lower SmO 2 values in the CWI compared to the HWI group at 20 min (Δ-6.76%, CI: −0.27 to −13.25, p = 0.038) and 30 min (Δ-9.86%, CI: −3.37 to −16.35, p = 0.001), and compared to CON at 30 min (Δ-7.28%, CI: −13.77 to −0.79, p = 0.022). Core temperature was significantly higher in the HWI than the CWI group (postInt and 30 min), while it was significantly lower in the CWI group than CON (30 min). CWI caused a substantial decrease in skin temperature compared to HWI and CON between postInt and 30 min follow-up (all p < 0.001). Skin temperature was higher in the HWI group compared to CON at postInt and throughout 30 min follow-up (all p < 0.001). No significant differences in recovery markers were observed between CWI and HWI groups, although HWI led to slightly higher creatine kinase levels (24 h and 72 h) and greater muscle swelling (24 h) compared to CON. Despite distinct acute physiological responses to CWI and HWI, neither improved subjective or objective recovery outcomes during the 72 h follow-up compared to CON in women following a muscle-damaging exercise protocol.

Compression pants, as functional sportswear providing external pressure, are widely used to enhance athletic performance and accelerate recovery. However, systematic investigations into their effectiveness during anaerobic exercise and the impact of different pressure levels on performance and post-exercise recovery remain limited. This randomized crossover controlled trial recruited 20 healthy male university students to compare the effects of four garment conditions: non-compressive pants (NCP), moderate-pressure compression pants (MCP), high-pressure compression pants (HCP), and ultra-high-pressure compression pants (UHCP). Anaerobic performance was assessed through vertical jump, agility tests, and the Wingate anaerobic test, with indicators including time at peak power (TPP), peak power (PP), average power (AP), minimum power (MP), power drop (PD), and total energy produced (TEP). Post-exercise blood lactate concentrations and heart rate responses were also monitored. The results showed that both HCP and UHCP significantly improved vertical jump height (p < 0.01), while MCP outperformed all other conditions in agility performance (p < 0.05). In the Wingate test, MCP achieved a shorter TPP compared to NCP (p < 0.05), with significantly higher AP, lower PD, and greater TEP than all other groups (p < 0.05), whereas HCP showed an advantage only in PP over NCP (p < 0.05). Post-exercise, all compression pant groups recorded significantly higher peak blood lactate (Lamax) levels than NCP (p < 0.05), with MCP showing the fastest lactate clearance rate. Heart rate analysis revealed that HCP and UHCP induced higher maximum heart rates (HRmax) (p < 0.05), while MCP exhibited superior heart rate recovery at 3, 5, and 10 min post-exercise (p< 0.05). These findings suggest that compression pants with different pressure levels yield distinct effects on anaerobic performance and physiological recovery. Moderate-pressure compression pants demonstrated the most balanced and beneficial outcomes across multiple performance and recovery metrics, providing practical implications for the individualized design and application of compression garments in athletic training and rehabilitation.

As more women engage in high-altitude activities, understanding how ovarian hormone fluctuations affect their cardiorespiratory system is essential for optimizing acclimatization to these environments. This study investigates the effects of menstrual cycle (MC) phases on physiological responses at rest, during and after submaximal exercise, at high-altitude (barometric pressure 509 ± 6 mmHg; partial pressure of inspired oxygen 96 ± 1 mmHg; ambient temperature 21 ± 2 °C and relative humidity 27 ± 4%) in 16 eumenorrheic women. Gas exchange, hemodynamic responses, heart rate variability and heart rate recovery (HRR) were monitored at low altitude, and then at 3375 m on the Mont Blanc (following nocturnal exposure) during both the early-follicular (EF) and mid-luteal (ML) phases. Significant differences were observed between low and high-altitude in ventilation, heart rate and cardiac output. Resting ventilation (15.2 ± 1.9 vs. 13.2 ± 2.5 L.min -1 ; p  = 0.039) and tidal volume (812 ± 217 vs. 713 ± 190 mL; p  = 0.027) were higher during EF than ML at high-altitude. These differences between EF and ML were no longer evident during exercise, with comparable responses in oxygen uptake kinetics, cycling efficiency and HRR. The MC had negligible effects on physiological responses to high-altitude. An individualized approach, tailored to each woman’s specific responses to hypoxia across the MC, may be more beneficial in optimizing high-altitude sojourns than general guidelines.