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Testing students on information that they do not know might seem like a fruitless endeavor. After all, why give anyone a test that they are guaranteed to fail because they have not yet learned the material? Remarkably, a growing body of research indicates that such testing—formally known as prequestioning or pretesting—can benefit learning if there is an opportunity to study the correct answers afterwards. This prequestioning effect or pretesting effect has been successfully demonstrated with a variety of learning materials, despite many erroneous responses being generated on initial tests, and in conjunction with text materials, videos, lectures, and/or correct answer feedback. In this review, we summarize the emerging evidence for prequestioning and pretesting effects on memory and transfer of learning. Uses of pre-instruction testing in the classroom, theoretical explanations, and other considerations are addressed. The evidence to date indicates that prequestioning and pretesting can often enhance learning, but the extent of that enhancement may vary due to differences in procedure or how learning is assessed. The underlying cognitive mechanisms, which can be represented by a three-stage framework, appear to involve test-induced changes in subsequent learning behaviors and possibly other processes. Further research is needed to clarify moderating factors, theoretical issues, and best practices for educational applications.

Making errors is part of human nature, and it is thus important to know how to get the best out of them. Experimental evidence has shown that generating errors can enhance learning when these are followed by corrective feedback. However, little is known about the specific conditions and mechanisms that underlie this benefit of experiencing errors. This review aimed to shed some light on this type of learning. First, we highlight certain conditions that may influence errorful learning. These include the timing of corrective feedback, error types, learner awareness about errorful learning, motivation to learn the study material, differences in special populations (e.g., amnesia), incidental versus intentional encoding, the importance of selecting an appropriate final test procedure, whether the study material needs to be semantically related, and if it is necessary to recover the previous errors at the time of retrieval. We then consider four explanatory theories of errorful learning: (1) The Mediator Effectiveness hypothesis, (2) the Search Set theory, (3) the Recursive Reminding theory, and (4) the Error Prediction theory. According to these theories, two factors are decisive for observing the benefits of errorful learning: the level of a pre-existing semantic relationship between the study materials, and whether the error must be explicitly recovered on the final test. To conclude, we discuss some limitations of using a pretesting procedure to study errorful learning and we reflect on further research. This review brings us closer to understanding why experiencing errors confers a memory advantage.

This study aims to test and determine the differences in the influence and effectiveness of cold temperature therapy and warm temperature therapy on fatigue in badminton athletes. This research uses a quasi experimental designs research method with a one group time series (pretest one post test) design. In this design, the first observation (pretest) is carried out after that the posttest observation. The treatment group was measured by providing cold temperature therapy and warm temperature therapy for fatigue which will be known to consist of three (3) indicators, namely: (1) Pulse Rate (DN) (2) Rating of Perceive Exertion (RPE) and (3) Blood Lactate Levels (LD). The research sample was taken from the existing population using a purposive sampling method with a total of 20 samples. Data collection is obtained through tests and measurements. The test instruments used to measure fatigue are stop time, questionnaires and Accutrend Lactate. The analysis technique uses the t test \"paired sample t test and independent sample t test\". The research results show that there is a significant difference between cold temperature therapy and warm temperature therapy on fatigue consisting of pulse rate, Rating of Perceive Exertion and blood lactate with a significance value of <0.05 using the paired t-test, a DN value of 0.049 , the RPE value is 0.003 and the LD value is 0.006. So it can be interpreted that there is a significant influence on the treatment given with cold temperature therapy and warm temperature therapy on the fatigue variable for badminton athletes. Based on the percentage results obtained, it can be said that cold temperature therapy is more effective in reducing DN and LD. Meanwhile, warm temperature therapy is more effective in reducing RPE.

Volleyball is perceived as a physically demanding sport that involves rapid changes in speed, deceleration, and abrupt alterations in movement direction. It has been emphasized that physiological attributes such as VO2max, PIF, PEF, and FVC play a crucial role in the athletic performance of individuals participating in dynamic sports, aiding them in effectively managing critical situations. Hence, the aim of this research was to evaluate the impact of endurance training on physiological parameters among volleyball athletes. A randomized controlled trial was carried out with 24 male players (mean age 21,58; SD±2,46 years). The assessment of physiological characteristics involved the utilization of a dry spirometer for VO2max measurement and the Multistage Fitness Test for assessing PIF, PEF, and FVC. A two-way Anova analysis was executed to ascertain any disparities in physiological parameters from pre-test to post-test. The results indicated notable variances in physiological traits (VO2max, PIF, PEF, and FVC) among volleyball participants following the implementation of the Tabata intervention regimen. These metrics are instrumental in enhancing physiological capabilities to attain superior athletic performances. When designing training regimens, it is imperative to consider physiological functional elements aligned with the specific demands of the sport. Key words. VO2max; physiology; sport; exercise; Tabata training.

Introduction: Soccer requires athletes to possess strength and endurance, involving intense physical activities that may lead to fatigue and injury. Such conditions stimulate the release of inflammatory markers, including interleukin-6 (IL-6) and creatine kinase (CK), which can impair recovery and athletic performance. Cold-water immersion (CWI) is a commonly used recovery strategy to mitigate these effects. Objective: This study aimed to examine the impact of CWI on IL-6 and CK levels, as well as vertical jump performance in female soccer players following a match. Methodology: A quasi-experimental two-group pretest-posttest design was employed, involving 20 purposively sampled participants. Blood samples were collected at four time points: pre-match, post-match, 24 hours post-match, and 48 hours post-match. Vertical jump performance was used to assess physical recovery. Results: Results showed no significant difference in vertical jump performance between the groups at 24 hours post-match (p > 0.05), but a significant difference was found at 48 hours post-match (p < 0.05), favoring the CWI group. Significant differences in IL-6 and CK levels were observed between the groups at both 24 and 48 hours post-match (p < 0.05). Discussion: CWI effectively reduced inflammation and muscle damage, as reflected in IL-6 and CK values, and promoted faster neuromuscular recovery. This finding suggests that CWI supports biological repair and functional recovery within 48 hours post-match. Conclusions: Cold-water immersion significantly improved physiological recovery in female soccer players, as indicated by lower IL-6 and CK levels and improved vertical jump performance over time compared to the control group. Introducción: El fútbol requiere que los atletas posean fuerza y resistencia, lo que implica actividades físicas intensas que pueden provocar fatiga y lesiones. Dichas condiciones estimulan la liberación de marcadores inflamatorios, como la interleucina-6 (IL-6) y la creatina quinasa (CK), que pueden perjudicar la recuperación y el rendimiento atlético. La inmersión en agua fría (CWI) es una estrategia de recuperación comúnmente utilizada para mitigar estos efectos. Objetivo: Este estudio tuvo como objetivo examinar el impacto de la CWI en los niveles de IL-6 y CK, así como en el rendimiento del salto vertical en jugadoras de fútbol después de un partido. Metodología: Se empleó un diseño pretest-postest cuasiexperimental de dos grupos, con 20 participantes muestreados intencionalmente. Se recogieron muestras de sangre en cuatro puntos temporales: antes del partido, después del partido, 24 horas después del partido y 48 horas después del partido. El rendimiento del salto vertical se utilizó para evaluar la recuperación física. Resultados: Los resultados no mostraron diferencias significativas en el rendimiento en salto vertical entre los grupos a las 24 horas posteriores al partido (p > 0,05), pero sí se encontró una diferencia significativa a las 48 horas posteriores al partido (p < 0,05), a favor del grupo CWI. Se observaron diferencias significativas en los niveles de IL-6 y CK entre los grupos tanto a las 24 como a las 48 horas posteriores al partido (p < 0,05). Discusión: La CWI redujo eficazmente la inflamación y el daño muscular, como se refleja en los valores de IL-6 y CK, y promovió una recuperación neuromuscular más rápida. Este hallazgo sugiere que la CWI favorece la reparación biológica y la recuperación funcional en las 48 horas posteriores al partido. Conclusiones: La inmersión en agua fría mejoró significativamente la recuperación fisiológica en las jugadoras de fútbol, ​​como lo indican los niveles más bajos de IL-6 y CK y un mejor rendimiento del salto vertical a lo largo del tiempo en comparación con el grupo de control. Introdução: O futebol exige força e resistência dos atletas, o que envolve atividades físicas intensas que podem levar à fadiga e lesões. Estas condições estimulam a libertação de marcadores inflamatórios, como a interleucina-6 (IL-6) e a creatina quinase (CK), que podem prejudicar a recuperação e o desempenho atlético. A imersão em água fria (IQF) é uma estratégia de recuperação comummente utilizada para mitigar estes efeitos.Objectivo: Este estudo teve como objectivo examinar o impacto da IQF nos níveis de IL-6 e CK, bem como no desempenho do salto vertical, em jogadoras de futebol após um jogo.Metodologia: Foi utilizado um desenho quase experimental de dois grupos, com pré-teste e pós-teste, com 20 participantes amostrados propositadamente. Foram recolhidas amostras de sangue em quatro momentos: pré-jogo, pós-jogo, 24 horas pós-jogo e 48 horas pós-jogo. O desempenho do salto vertical foi utilizado para avaliar a recuperação física.Resultados: Os resultados não mostraram diferenças significativas no desempenho do salto vertical entre os grupos 24 horas após o jogo (p > 0,05), mas foi encontrada uma diferença significativa 48 horas após o jogo (p < 0,05), favorecendo o grupo CWI. Foram observadas diferenças significativas nos níveis de IL-6 e CK entre os grupos 24 e 48 horas após a partida (p < 0,05).Discussão: O CWI reduziu eficazmente a inflamação e o dano muscular, refletidos nos níveis de IL-6 e CK, e promoveu uma recuperação neuromuscular mais rápida. Este achado sugere que o CWI promove a reparação biológica e a recuperação funcional nas 48 horas após a partida.Conclusões: A imersão em água fria melhorou significativamente a recuperação fisiológica em jogadoras de futebol, como indicado pelos níveis mais baixos de IL-6 e CK, e melhorou o desempenho do salto vertical ao longo do tempo em comparação com o grupo de controlo.

Pretesting and posttesting have long been implemented in classrooms as methods of testing and improving learning. Prior research has been mixed on the relative benefits of pretesting versus posttesting, with some studies finding pretesting to be more beneficial, and others finding posttesting to be more beneficial. True/False testing is a particularly easy-to-implement method and is regularly used in classrooms. However, relatively little is known about how these tests affect learning. Three experiments address the effects of true/false pre- and posttests on learning correct information and intrusion rates of false information. We find consistent benefits of both pretesting and posttesting but significantly higher intrusion rates for posttesting relative to pretesting, a finding that persisted despite inclusion of simple True/False feedback (Experiment 2) and substantive feedback (Experiment 3). Although the difference between pretesting and posttesting intrusion rates was still significant with the addition of substantive feedback, overall intrusion rates were greatly reduced.

Taking a test before learning new information in a lesson improves memory for that information – pretesting effect. Although the specific memory benefit of a pretest on pretested information has been well documented, it remains unclear what the circumstances necessary for the broader memory benefit are – that is, the benefit of a pretest on memory of information in the lesson that was not pretested. Sometimes this broader benefit is present, but other times it disappears or reverses. We investigated if manipulating where the non-pretested information appears in a lesson – either before or after the pretested information – affects broader memory benefits. Participants read a text passage (Experiment 1 ) or watched a video lecture (Experiment 2 ) after completing a pretest on half of the lesson content. The pretested information appeared either at the beginning (prior to the non-pretested information) or at the end (after the non-pretested information) of the lesson. The final test assessed memory of both pretested and non-pretested information. We hypothesized that pretests trigger an attentional window that opens during the lesson and closes after pretested information has been identified. Any information, including non-pretested information, will benefit from being in this window because it is more likely to be processed. We found that memory of non-pretested information is better if the non-pretested information is presented at the beginning versus at the end of a lesson, regardless of delivery modality. These results indicate that the presentation order of pretested versus non-pretested information contributes to the broader memory benefits associated with pretesting.

The pretesting or prequestion effect refers to the counterintuitive finding that taking tests on information that one has yet to learn, during which many erroneous responses typically occur, can benefit learning relative to nontesting methods (e.g., reading) if the correct answers are studied afterwards. Using a knowledge updating approach that entailed two or three cycles of pretesting versus reading followed by a criterial test, we investigated (a) the extent to which learners develop metacognitive awareness of the pretesting effect through experience (as evidenced by predictions of criterial test performance) and (b) three forms of external support—namely, performance feedback (displaying criterial test performance for pretested versus read items), prediction reminders (displaying learners’ predictions alongside performance feedback), and recall prompts (asking learners to remember criterial test performance during the first cycle prior to making predictions for the second cycle)—that might improve, or provide insights into, such awareness. Across five experiments, we found that learners generally lack awareness of the memorial benefits of pretesting, are predisposed to believing that reading is more effective even after repeatedly experiencing both techniques, and need support before they recognize that pretesting is more beneficial. Overall, these results underscore the challenge of, and highlight several means of dislodging, learners’ inaccurate beliefs about the efficacy of pretesting.