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Testing students on information that they do not know might seem like a fruitless endeavor. After all, why give anyone a test that they are guaranteed to fail because they have not yet learned the material? Remarkably, a growing body of research indicates that such testing—formally known as prequestioning or pretesting—can benefit learning if there is an opportunity to study the correct answers afterwards. This prequestioning effect or pretesting effect has been successfully demonstrated with a variety of learning materials, despite many erroneous responses being generated on initial tests, and in conjunction with text materials, videos, lectures, and/or correct answer feedback. In this review, we summarize the emerging evidence for prequestioning and pretesting effects on memory and transfer of learning. Uses of pre-instruction testing in the classroom, theoretical explanations, and other considerations are addressed. The evidence to date indicates that prequestioning and pretesting can often enhance learning, but the extent of that enhancement may vary due to differences in procedure or how learning is assessed. The underlying cognitive mechanisms, which can be represented by a three-stage framework, appear to involve test-induced changes in subsequent learning behaviors and possibly other processes. Further research is needed to clarify moderating factors, theoretical issues, and best practices for educational applications.

Retrieval practice, or taking tests after studying, is a highly effective strategy to enhance learning. Furthermore, pretesting, which involves attempting and failing to guess unknown information before studying it, has emerged as a more effective strategy than mere re-studying. These methods exemplify errorful learning and represent powerful learning tools. In a series of experiments, we investigated how test order – whether administered before (pretest) or after (post-test) exposure to the learning material – affects memory compared to errorless copying (Experiment 1). Experiment 2 followed a similar design but included a copy-test-copy condition to further explore the potential impacts of test order. The results revealed that the pretest, post-test, and copy-test-copy groups all improved memory compared to errorless copying, with no difference between the three. Error type analysis indicated minimal intrusion errors. In Experiment 3, we explored the pretesting effect in older adults. The results showed that pretesting significantly enhanced memory compared to copying, indicating the robustness of pretesting in healthy aging and across age groups. Interestingly, participants across the experiments consistently underestimated the efficacy of testing, revealing a gap in metacognitive awareness. These findings underscore the efficacy of errorful learning as a robust strategy with broad applicability across diverse populations and procedures.

Volleyball is perceived as a physically demanding sport that involves rapid changes in speed, deceleration, and abrupt alterations in movement direction. It has been emphasized that physiological attributes such as VO2max, PIF, PEF, and FVC play a crucial role in the athletic performance of individuals participating in dynamic sports, aiding them in effectively managing critical situations. Hence, the aim of this research was to evaluate the impact of endurance training on physiological parameters among volleyball athletes. A randomized controlled trial was carried out with 24 male players (mean age 21,58; SD±2,46 years). The assessment of physiological characteristics involved the utilization of a dry spirometer for VO2max measurement and the Multistage Fitness Test for assessing PIF, PEF, and FVC. A two-way Anova analysis was executed to ascertain any disparities in physiological parameters from pre-test to post-test. The results indicated notable variances in physiological traits (VO2max, PIF, PEF, and FVC) among volleyball participants following the implementation of the Tabata intervention regimen. These metrics are instrumental in enhancing physiological capabilities to attain superior athletic performances. When designing training regimens, it is imperative to consider physiological functional elements aligned with the specific demands of the sport. Key words. VO2max; physiology; sport; exercise; Tabata training.

This study aims to test and determine the differences in the influence and effectiveness of cold temperature therapy and warm temperature therapy on fatigue in badminton athletes. This research uses a quasi experimental designs research method with a one group time series (pretest one post test) design. In this design, the first observation (pretest) is carried out after that the posttest observation. The treatment group was measured by providing cold temperature therapy and warm temperature therapy for fatigue which will be known to consist of three (3) indicators, namely: (1) Pulse Rate (DN) (2) Rating of Perceive Exertion (RPE) and (3) Blood Lactate Levels (LD). The research sample was taken from the existing population using a purposive sampling method with a total of 20 samples. Data collection is obtained through tests and measurements. The test instruments used to measure fatigue are stop time, questionnaires and Accutrend Lactate. The analysis technique uses the t test \"paired sample t test and independent sample t test\". The research results show that there is a significant difference between cold temperature therapy and warm temperature therapy on fatigue consisting of pulse rate, Rating of Perceive Exertion and blood lactate with a significance value of <0.05 using the paired t-test, a DN value of 0.049 , the RPE value is 0.003 and the LD value is 0.006. So it can be interpreted that there is a significant influence on the treatment given with cold temperature therapy and warm temperature therapy on the fatigue variable for badminton athletes. Based on the percentage results obtained, it can be said that cold temperature therapy is more effective in reducing DN and LD. Meanwhile, warm temperature therapy is more effective in reducing RPE.

Making errors is part of human nature, and it is thus important to know how to get the best out of them. Experimental evidence has shown that generating errors can enhance learning when these are followed by corrective feedback. However, little is known about the specific conditions and mechanisms that underlie this benefit of experiencing errors. This review aimed to shed some light on this type of learning. First, we highlight certain conditions that may influence errorful learning. These include the timing of corrective feedback, error types, learner awareness about errorful learning, motivation to learn the study material, differences in special populations (e.g., amnesia), incidental versus intentional encoding, the importance of selecting an appropriate final test procedure, whether the study material needs to be semantically related, and if it is necessary to recover the previous errors at the time of retrieval. We then consider four explanatory theories of errorful learning: (1) The Mediator Effectiveness hypothesis, (2) the Search Set theory, (3) the Recursive Reminding theory, and (4) the Error Prediction theory. According to these theories, two factors are decisive for observing the benefits of errorful learning: the level of a pre-existing semantic relationship between the study materials, and whether the error must be explicitly recovered on the final test. To conclude, we discuss some limitations of using a pretesting procedure to study errorful learning and we reflect on further research. This review brings us closer to understanding why experiencing errors confers a memory advantage.

Pretesting and posttesting have long been implemented in classrooms as methods of testing and improving learning. Prior research has been mixed on the relative benefits of pretesting versus posttesting, with some studies finding pretesting to be more beneficial, and others finding posttesting to be more beneficial. True/False testing is a particularly easy-to-implement method and is regularly used in classrooms. However, relatively little is known about how these tests affect learning. Three experiments address the effects of true/false pre- and posttests on learning correct information and intrusion rates of false information. We find consistent benefits of both pretesting and posttesting but significantly higher intrusion rates for posttesting relative to pretesting, a finding that persisted despite inclusion of simple True/False feedback (Experiment 2) and substantive feedback (Experiment 3). Although the difference between pretesting and posttesting intrusion rates was still significant with the addition of substantive feedback, overall intrusion rates were greatly reduced.

The electronic records of all children with a vitamin B12 level >771 ng/L processed by York & Scarborough Teaching Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust in 2018/2019 were reviewed up to June 2024 to look for a subsequent diagnosis of malignancy and/or inflammatory or autoimmune disorders. Where the content includes any translated material, BMJ does not warrant the accuracy and reliability of the translations (including but not limited to local regulations, clinical guidelines, terminology, drug names and drug dosages), and is not responsible for any error and/or omissions arising from translation and adaptation or otherwise. Trends in diagnostic tests ordered for children: a retrospective analysis of 1.7 million laboratory test requests in Oxfordshire, UK from 2005 to 2019.

Taking a test before learning new information in a lesson improves memory for that information – pretesting effect. Although the specific memory benefit of a pretest on pretested information has been well documented, it remains unclear what the circumstances necessary for the broader memory benefit are – that is, the benefit of a pretest on memory of information in the lesson that was not pretested. Sometimes this broader benefit is present, but other times it disappears or reverses. We investigated if manipulating where the non-pretested information appears in a lesson – either before or after the pretested information – affects broader memory benefits. Participants read a text passage (Experiment 1 ) or watched a video lecture (Experiment 2 ) after completing a pretest on half of the lesson content. The pretested information appeared either at the beginning (prior to the non-pretested information) or at the end (after the non-pretested information) of the lesson. The final test assessed memory of both pretested and non-pretested information. We hypothesized that pretests trigger an attentional window that opens during the lesson and closes after pretested information has been identified. Any information, including non-pretested information, will benefit from being in this window because it is more likely to be processed. We found that memory of non-pretested information is better if the non-pretested information is presented at the beginning versus at the end of a lesson, regardless of delivery modality. These results indicate that the presentation order of pretested versus non-pretested information contributes to the broader memory benefits associated with pretesting.

Handball calls for a variety of athletic skills, but throwing force is crucial for passing, scoring, and gaining momentum. Plyometric training uses explosive exercises that increase muscular contraction speed and force to improve power and speed. The purpose of the study is to ascertain whether adding plyometric workouts to handball players' training regimens can enhance their throwing ability to a noticeable degree. The research utilized an experimental design with a pretest-posttest methodology for a single group. The Sambas district handball team, which consisted of 15 athletes, picked the participants, who were between the ages of 17 and 22. Plyometric training was the intervention, and it was done in three sessions a week for four weeks. The Medicine Ball Javelin Quadrathlo strength test was used to gather data, and SPSS version 26 was used for analysis. The research showed that the mean throwing power and speed had significantly increased, with improvements of 2.07 between the pretest and posttest values of 19.93 and 22.00, respectively. The significance value obtained was 0.000, indicating a statistically significant enhancement. The plyometric training was found to be highly effective in enhancing the explosive strength and neuromuscular coordination required for powerful and fast throws in handball. In conclusion, the findings suggest that incorporating plyometric training into the training programs of handball players can substantially improve their throwing performance. Coaches and trainers are recommended to integrate plyometric exercises to maximize the athletic potential of their players.