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Bluetongue is a non-contagious disease of domestic and wild ruminants caused by a virus within the Orbivirus genus of the family Reoviridae and transmitted by Culicoides biting midges. It is a reportable disease of considerable socioeconomic concern and of major importance for the international trade of animals and animal products. In the past, bluetongue endemic areas were found between latitudes 40 deg N and 35 deg S; however, bluetongue has recently spread far beyond this traditional range. This is in accordance with the extension of areas in which the biting midge Culicoides imicola, the major vector of the virus in the 'Old World', is active. After 1998 new serotypes of bluetongue virus (BTV) were discovered in Southern European and Mediterranean countries. Since 2006 BTV-serotype 8 has also been reported from the countries in Northern and Western Europe where Culicoides imicola has not been found. In such cases, BTV is transmitted by Palearctic biting midges, such as C. obsoletus or C. dewulfi, and the disease has thus spread much further north than BTV has ever previously been detected. New BTV serotypes have recently been identified also in Israel, Australia and the USA. This review presents comprehensive information on this dangerous disease including its history, spread, routes of transmission and host range, as well as the causative agent and pathogenesis and diagnosis of the disease. It also deals with relevant preventive and control measures to be implemented in areas with bluetongue outbreaks.

Phytoplasmas for which 16S rDNA sequences are available have been classified into 20 major phylogenetic groups or subclasses. Further phytoplasmas have been assigned to these groups, according to other molecular data such as RFLP analysis of PCR-amplified ribosomal DNA, nucleic acid hybridization, and serological comparison. A total of 75 phytoplasmas were distinguishable among the molecularly characterized phytopathogenic mollicutes I fitoplasmi, dei quali la sequenza nucleotidica del 16S rDNA era nota, sono stati classificati in 20 gruppi fitogenetici principali. Sulla base di dati ottenuti mediante analisi di RFLP del DNA ribosomale amplificato mediante PCR, ibridazione di acidi nucleici e sierologia, altri fitoplasmi sono stati assegnati ai gruppi suddetti. Un totale di 75 distinti taxa e' stato individuato tra tutti i mollicuti fitopatogeni caratterizzati con metodiche molecolari

We monitored the presence of Listeria monocytogenes in environmental sources and evaluated phenotypic and molecular characteristics of the isolates recovered. L. monocytogenes was isolated in 12 of the 107 samples from wild and farm environments, and from vegetation. Most isolates (83.3%) were of serotype 1/2a and the remainder (2) were of serotype 4b. All 12 isolates were susceptible to the whole range of antimicrobials tested. These 12 strains were carriers of the virulence genes prfA, hlyA, actA, plcA, plcB, inlA, inlB, inlC, and inlJ. The detection of the inlA gene in 4 strains using the PCR-RFLP suggests the potential of some of these strains to penetrate into epithelial cells of the intestinal barrier. Macrorestriction analysis also confirmed clonal identity of some environmental isolates with food and human isolates. These results indicate that the external environment is a source of potentially pathogenic strains of L. monocytogenes.

A total of 116 Escherichia (E.) coli isolates isolated from neonatal diarrhoeic piglets were serogrouped and tested for the presence of virulence genes for fimbrial and non-fimbrial adhesins, intimin, and enterotoxins. Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) pulsotypes were also analyzed within O149 enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC) isolates. In total, Sixty eight (58.6%) isolates were serotyped. Among them, forty three (63.2%) belonged to 12 serogroups in the descending order: O149, O8, O157, O101, O60, O9, O117, O127, O138, O167, O27 and O97. The predominant pathotype was ETEC (68, 58.6%) which is closely associated with F4 (37, 31.9%) and LT:STb:EAST1 (23, 19.8%) out of the isolates harbouring at least one gene for toxin and/or fimbria. Among non-fimbrial adhesins, porcine attaching and effacing-associated factor (paa) was closely associated with F4-positive isolates (64.7%) rather than F18-positive isolates (5.9%). Adhesion involved in diffuse adherence (AIDA) was only detected in 3 isolates. No eae-positive isolates were detected. The PFGE pattern of 15 O149 isolates was grouped into 12 pulsotypes at 88% similarity level. The results show a wide variety of distinct restriction patterns though all belonged to the same serogroup O149. It is believed that a broad array of O serogroup and virulence genes are associated with neonatal diarrhoea in Korea.

Interstitial pneumonia (2/3 of the lungs were affected) and diffusely enlarged bronchial and mediastinal lymph nodes were diagnosed by gross examination of a dead 16-year-old mare. Based on histopathological examination and the detection of acid-fast rods after staining by the Ziehl-Neelsen technique, tuberculosis was suspected. Mycobacterium avium subsp. avium of serotype 2 and IS901+/IS1245+ genotype was isolated from the pulmonary lymph node after five-week incubation at 37 deg C. Due to the fact that horses have a naturally high resistance to mycobacterial infections, the high age of the mare most likely contributed to the development of the disease.

A total of 126 Salmonella spp. isolates from pigs belonging to 13 serotypes (Typhimurium, Derby, Infantis, Enteritidis, Agona, Kaapstad, London, Montevideo, Bredeney, Give, Oritamerin, Schwarzengrund and Tennessee) were tested for sensitivity to 14 antibiotics. Resistance to 1-8 antibiotics was demonstrated in 64 isolates, classified into 7 serotypes with the most frequent being Salmonella typhimurium (n=54). S. typhimurium strains were found to be the most resistant to streptomycin (91.5%), sulphonamides (88.1%), ampicillin (86.4%), tetracycline (84.7%) and chloramphenicol (83.0%), displaying the ACSSuT phenotype. In all strains of this phenotype (n=27), the gene for integrase (int1) and resistance genes blaPSE-1, floR, aadA2, sul1 and tetG were detected by PCRs. In some of the strains, additional resistance to amoxycillin/clavulanic acid, sulphamethoxazole/trimethoprim, nalidixic acid and enrofloxacin was found.

Between 1996 and 2004, tissue samples from 3,630 slaughtered pigs were examined by gross examination, microscopy after the Ziehl-Neelsen (ZN) staining of homogenised tissues for the detection of acid-fast rods (AFR) and by culture for the presence of mycobacteria and Rhodococcus equi. Tuberculous/tuberculoid lesions were not detected in 6.9% animals slaughtered due to a positive response to avian tuberculin. Various gross lesions were detected in 93.1% animals as follows: adenopathy in 4.1%, tuberculous lesions with caseation in 55.8% and tuberculous lesions with calcification in 33.2% of them. AFR were found in tissues from 56.4% animals. Mycobacteria were isolated from the tissues of 15.8% out of 1,852 animals without detected AFR and from the tissues of 72.5% out of 1,778 animals with detected AFR. Out of 1,579 mycobacterial isolates 94.6% were classified as M. avium complex members as follows: 29.7% M. a. avium and 56.4% M. a. hominissuis. Some of the isolates were members of other mycobacterial species (M. chelonae, M. smegmatis, M. xenopi, M. terrae, M. aurum, M. scrofulaceum, and M. fortuitum). By examination of ZN stained homogenised tissues, AFR were detected significantly more frequently in samples from animals with caseated and/or calcified tuberculous lesions than in tissues from animals without tuberculous lesions.

The S-1 peplomer gene sequences of 31 strains of avian coronavirus infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) from North America, Europe, and Australia were compared to identify common and unique regions for possible diagnostic applications. S-1 sequences that were conserved among serotypes and sequences that were variable between serotypes were identified. Based on conserved S-1 gene sequences, \"general\" degenerate oligonucleotide primers were designed that amplified IBV genomic RNA by the reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) procedure regardless of serotype. Primers specific for IBV serotypes Massachusetts, Connecticut, Arkansas, JMK, Delaware (DE/072/92), and California (CA/633/85) were designed from regions of the S-1 gene exhibiting extensive sequence hypervariability. The ability to identify these six serotypes of IBV by RT-PCR was demonstrated by testing the serotype-specific primers on a panel of unknown samples that included 30 reference strains and field isolates previously characterized by virus neutralization (VN). The use of serotype-specific primers in RT-PCR provides a rapid and accurate means of identifying IBV

In total the samples of blood and kidneys of 379 small rodents and 154 wild swine were analysed. The antibodies to different serovars of leptospires were determined in 12.7 % of small rodents, most often in the species Mus musculus (34.4 %), A. agrestis (14.8 %), A. flavicolis (10.8 %), C. glareolus (9.4 %) and A. sylvaticus (6.5 %). Most frequent were the findings of antibodies to sv. pomona (27.1 %), sv. sejroe (20.8 %), and sv. australis (14.6 %), and the antibodies to sv. hardjo, sv. saxkoebing, sv. tarassovi, sv. grippotyphosa, sv. bataviae and sv. icterohaemorrhagiae were also established. Seventeen (4.5 %) isolates were identified, belonging to the serogroups sejroe (10 isolates), pomona (4 isolates) and australis (1 isolate) and one isolate was not identified. In wild swine positive reactions were established in 26 % of the blood sera analysed. Most frequently the antibodies to sv. pomona (47.5 %), sv. australis (40 %), sv. grippotyphosa (10 %) and sv. icterohaemorhagiae (2.5 %) were established. Thirteen (8.4 %) isolates belonging to the serogroups pomona (10 isolates), australis (2 isolates) and icterohaemorhagiae (1 isolate) were identified.

Between 1997 and 2003, positive and dubious responses to avian tuberculin were detected in 4 and 72 pigs, respectively, in a breeding herd of 90 sows and 2 boars. Pigs were examined using the agglutination test for the presence of serum antibodies against corpuscular antigens prepared from various Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) members: M. a. avium (MAA) of serotype 2, M. a. hominissuis (MAH) of serotype 8 and M. intracellulare (MI) of serotype 19. Positive skin responses were found in animals with antibodies against MAH (23.7%), MAA (4.0%) and MI (11.8%) antigens. By serological examination of 17 sows with repeated dubious responses for tuberculin skin testing with avian tuberculin, no antibodies against MAA were detected; MAH antibodies and MI antibodies were found in eight and two animals, respectively. No tuberculous/tuberculoid lesions were detected by postmortem examination of lymph nodes (ln) and organ samples from all 76 animals with responses to avian tuberculin. Culture examination of ln and organs from 13 animals revealed conditionally pathogenic mycobacteria (CPM) in one boar. These isolates were identified as MAH and CPM by the PCR method and biochemically. Investigation of the external environment (205 samples) revealed 16.3% CPM isolates as follows: 13 MAH, 8 M. fortuitum, one M. nonchromogenicum, one M. abscessus, one M. scrofulaceum and 9 unidentified isolates which were non-MAC according to the PCR examination. Animal hygiene measures adopted since 2002 resulted in a decrease of environmental contamination with CPM and a reduction in the number of animals with positive responses to avian tuberculin.