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Background Diversification on the basis of utilization is a hallmark of Beta vulgaris (beet), as well as other crop species. Often, crop improvement and management activities are segregated by crop type, thus preserving unique genome diversity and organization. Full interfertility is typically retained in crosses between these groups and more traits may be accessible if the genetic basis of crop type lineage were known, along with available genetic markers to effect efficient transfer (e.g., via backcrossing). Beta vulgaris L. (2n =18) is a species complex composed of diverged lineages (e.g., crop types), including the familiar table, leaf (chard), fodder, and sugar beet crop types. Using population genetic and statistical methods with whole genome sequence data from pooled samples of 23 beet cultivars and breeding lines, relationships were determined between accessions based on identity-by-state metrics and shared genetic variation among lineages. Results Distribution of genetic variation within and between crop types showed extensive shared (e.g. non-unique) genetic variation. Lineage specific variation (e.g. apomorphy) within crop types supported a shared demographic history within each crop type, while principal components analysis revealed strong crop type differentiation. Relative contributions of specific chromosomes to genome wide differentiation were ascertained, with each chromosome revealing a different pattern of differentiation with respect to crop type. Inferred population size history for each crop type helped integrate selection history for each lineage, and highlighted potential genetic bottlenecks in the development of cultivated beet lineages. Conclusions A complex evolutionary history of cultigroups in Beta vulgaris was demonstrated, involving lineage divergence as a result of selection and reproductive isolation. Clear delineation of crop types was obfuscated by historical gene flow and common ancestry (e.g. admixture and introgression, and sorting of ancestral polymorphism) which served to share genome variation between crop types and, likely, important phenotypic characters. Table beet was well differentiated as a crop type, and shared more genetic variation within than among crop types. The sugar beet group was not quite as well differentiated as the table beet group. Fodder and chard groups were intermediate between table and sugar groups, perhaps the result of less intensive selection for end use.

The Beta vulgaris complex includes sugar beet, mangel wurzel, Swiss chard, fodder beet, and table beet. Mangel wurzel and fodder beet are considered to be the same general crop type, with the former possessing lower dry matter content (<13%) than the latter. Mangel is likely derived from crosses between table beet and chard, while fodder beet may have a more recent origin, arising from crosses between mangel and sugarbeet. The table beet was derived from the wild sea beet, B. vulgaris (L.) subsp. maritima (L.) Arcang, with small non-spherical roots. Table beet is presently a popular vegetable cultivated for its pigmented roots, typically red but also yellow and other colors. Wild forms were consumed in antiquity mainly for their leaves with roots used medicinally. Beet is referred to in the Septuagint, a Greek translation of the first five books of the Hebrew bible, made in Ptolomeic Egypt in the third century BCE. A beet identified as Beta maritima is included in De Material Medicus of Pedanius Dioscorides written in the first century CE, and the first illustrated version of 512, known as the Juliana Anicia Codex , includes an image with non-spherical root. Beet is mentioned in several tractates of the Talmud, a sixth century collection of history and civil law written in Babylonia. Beta maritima possesses supernumerary root cambia, which facilitated selection of swollen rooted forms. The first colored illustration of swollen rooted table beet, B. vulgaris , can be found in the 1515–1517 frescos of Raphael Sanzio and Giovanni Martina da Udine in the Villa Farnesina in Rome. Swollen roots in Roman beet are illustrated and described in the 1587 French herbal Historia Generalis Plantarum of Jacques Dalechamps. Conically shaped beet roots are found in the market painting of Franz Snijders in the 17th century. Various spherical forms of beet root are found in the work of American painter James Peale in 1826. A complete array of beet root types is found in the Benary catalog of 1876. Modern, spherical beet roots were depicted in 1936 by the Russian painter Zinaida Serebriankov, 1936 . Artistic and historical representations of table beet suggest that swollen rooted forms have existed during the past five centuries, but conically shaped roots were gradually replaced by spherically shaped roots during this period.

New York state is among the largest producers of table beets in the United States, which, by extension, has placed a new focus on precision crop management. For example, an operational unmanned aerial system (UAS)-based yield forecasting tool could prove helpful for the efficient management and harvest scheduling of crops for factory feedstock. The objective of this study was to evaluate the feasibility of predicting the weight of table beet roots from spectral and textural features, obtained from hyperspectral images collected via UAS. We identified specific wavelengths with significant predictive ability, e.g., we down-select >200 wavelengths to those spectral indices sensitive to root yield (weight per unit length). Multivariate linear regression was used, and the accuracy and precision were evaluated at different growth stages throughout the season to evaluate temporal plasticity. Models at each growth stage exhibited similar results (albeit with different wavelength indices), with the LOOCV (leave-one-out cross-validation) R2 ranging from 0.85 to 0.90 and RMSE of 10.81–12.93% for the best-performing models in each growth stage. Among visible and NIR spectral regions, the 760–920 nm-wavelength region contained the most wavelength indices highly correlated with table beet root yield. We recommend future studies to further test our proposed wavelength indices on data collected from different geographic locations and seasons to validate our results.

ABSTRACT Conventional tillage and mineral fertilization (CTMF) jeopardize soil health in conventional vegetable production systems. Using a field experiment established in Uruguay in 2012, we aimed to compare the soil restoration potential of organic fertilization (compost and poultry manure) combined with conventional tillage and cover crop incorporated into the soil (CTOF) or with reduced tillage and the use of cover crop as mulch (RTOF). In 2017, table beet was cultivated under CTMF, CTOF and RTOF, and yields, soil aggregate composition and nutrients, as well as soil and table beet rhizosphere microbiota (here: bacteria and archaea) were evaluated. Microbiota was studied by high-throughput sequencing of 16S rRNA gene fragments amplified from total community DNA. RTOF exhibited higher soil aggregation, soil organic C, nutrient availability and microbial alpha-diversity than CTMF, and became more similar to an adjacent natural undisturbed site. The soil microbiota was strongly shaped by the fertilization source which was conveyed to the rhizosphere and resulted in differentially abundant taxa. However, 229 amplicon sequencing variants were found to form the core table beet rhizosphere microbiota shared among managements. In conclusion, our study shows that after only 5 years of implementation, RTOF improves soil health under intensive vegetable farming systems. Soil health in a vegetable farming system was improved in a relatively short-term period by restoration methods like the combined application of green manure, compost, manure amendments and reduced tillage.

In the sugar beet cultivars, the leaf mass has the lowest content of acid-detergent fibers (from 25.7 to 50.8%), acid-detergent lignin (from 25.7 to 50.8%) and cellulose (from 10.9 to 14.3%), but with a higher concentration of neutral - detergent fibers (with from 15.1 to 15.4%) and hemicellulose (with from 54.0 to 74.0%) compared to that of fodder and table beets. Since these food by-products can be major sources for the recovery of bioactive compounds, many studies have proposed a strategy to valorize them using extraction techniques (Tinello and Lanté 2019; Cisneros-Yupanqui et al., 2021; Lånte et al., 2020). The main chemical composition of the dried leaf mass was analyzed, including the following indicators: * Crude fiber (CFr, g kg\"1 DM) according to the Weende analysis - the sample was treated sequentially with solutions of 1.25% (w/v) H2SO4 and 1.25% (w/v) NaOH under special conditions. Neutral Detergent Fibers (NDF, g kg\"1 DM); Acid detergent fiber (ADF, g kg\"1 DM) and Acid detergent lignin (ADL, g kg\"1 DM) by the Van Soest and Robertson (1979) detergent assay and in vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDMD, g kg\"1) according to a two-way pepsin-cellulase method of Aufrere (1982).

The interaction of phosphorus (P) and zinc (Zn) is a crucial factor affecting crop yield in agricultural production called a P-induced Zn deficiency. The application of Zn and P together reduces deficiencies and increases plant growth by more than the sum of the increases from Zn and P alone. This experiment was carried out during two seasons, in consecutive years, to study the effect of P and Zn levels on the physical, physiological and anatomical response in table beet plants. Treatment one was as control; the second treatment was 35 P units with 5, 10, and 20 Zn units; the third treatment was 40 P units with 5, 10, and 20 Zn units; and the fourth treatment was 45 P units with 5, 10, and 20 Zn units. The data showed that the number of leaves and the root diameters were high with the addition of 40 P units and 10 Zn units, and the roots fresh and dry weights were high under 40 P units and 10 Zn units in both seasons. The contents of TSS, AA, TS, ACY, N, P, and K were significantly increased by the use of 40 and 45 P units combined with 5 and 10 Zn units. The anatomical alterations in both leaf blade, epidermal layers, midrib zone, vessel diameter, vascular bundle area, palisade, and spongy tissues were studied. The results recommend that fertilizing table beet plants with 40 P units and 10 Zn units is suitable.

Timely and accurate monitoring has the potential to streamline crop management, harvest planning, and processing in the growing table beet industry of New York state. We used unmanned aerial system (UAS) combined with a multispectral imager to monitor table beet (Beta vulgaris ssp. vulgaris) canopies in New York during the 2018 and 2019 growing seasons. We assessed the optimal pairing of a reflectance band or vegetation index with canopy area to predict table beet yield components of small sample plots using leave-one-out cross-validation. The most promising models were for table beet root count and mass using imagery taken during emergence and canopy closure, respectively. We created augmented plots, composed of random combinations of the study plots, to further exploit the importance of early canopy growth area. We achieved a R2 = 0.70 and root mean squared error (RMSE) of 84 roots (~24%) for root count, using 2018 emergence imagery. The same model resulted in a RMSE of 127 roots (~35%) when tested on the unseen 2019 data. Harvested root mass was best modeled with canopy closing imagery, with a R2 = 0.89 and RMSE = 6700 kg/ha using 2018 data. We applied the model to the 2019 full-field imagery and found an average yield of 41,000 kg/ha (~40,000 kg/ha average for upstate New York). This study demonstrates the potential for table beet yield models using a combination of radiometric and canopy structure data obtained at early growth stages. Additional imagery of these early growth stages is vital to develop a robust and generalized model of table beet root yield that can handle imagery captured at slightly different growth stages between seasons.

Participatory plant breeding and rapid sensory evaluation are effective techniques for organic cultivar development. Table beet is an important crop for organic growers, and geosmin, a volatile compound which confers earthy aroma, has been suggested as the attribute around which hedonic liking of beet is organized. Open pollinated table beet populations with diverse pigmentation and low (LGC) or high (HGC) geosmin concentration served as starting materials for the first PPB effort in table beet. This project sought to develop consumer-accepted specialty beet cultivars for organic systems and to gauge consumer perception of and preference for geosmin concentration in non-laboratory conditions. LGC and HGC initial populations were significantly different in mean geosmin concentration but not mean TDS. LGC populations diverged significantly in geosmin concentration over two cycles of selection for hedonic liking, due to drift rather than selection. PPB yielded cultivars ‘Evansville Ember’, ‘Snowglobe’, ‘Blushing Not Bashful’, ‘Evansville Orbit’, and ‘Moving Target’. Cultivar novelty and market development were strengthened by chef input and association with a publicly funded seed system development group. Geosmin concentration was not the central determinant of hedonic liking or perceived earthy flavor in table beet. Earthiness was inconsistently associated with geosmin concentration and hedonic liking. Sweetness and bitterness were positively and negatively correlated with liking, respectively, although sweetness was not associated with variation in TDS. Cultivars with a broad range of geosmin concentration were well accepted by consumers, and manipulating expectation—via appearance—may be as powerful as manipulating flavor compounds in influencing liking of table beet.

Geosmin, a degraded sesquiterpene molecule with earthy and musty odor, imbues table beet with its characteristic aroma. Geosmin is heritable and endogenously produced in table beet; its earthy aroma is sought by some consumers but deters others. Geosmin biosynthesis is catalyzed by a bifunctional geosmin synthase enzyme in diverse bacteria and fungi, but a mechanism for geosmin biosynthesis in plants has not been reported. This work employed association analysis and selective genotyping of a segregating F2:3 mapping population to seek QTL associated with geosmin concentration in table beet. GBS reads were aligned to sugar beet reference genome EL10.2, and association analysis revealed two QTL for geosmin concentration on Beta vulgaris ssp. vulgaris chromosome 8. QTL at EL10.2 positions 28,017,624 and 38,488,687 each show effect size 8.7 μg·kg-1 geosmin and explain 8.5% and 6.4% of total variation in geosmin concentration, respectively. Resolution was low due to large recombination bin size and imperfect alignment between the reference genome and mapping population, but population size and selection proportion were sufficient to detect moderate to large effect QTL. This study, the first molecular genetic mapping experiment in table beet, succeeded in finding QTL for geosmin concentration in table beet, and it provides the basis for fine mapping or candidate gene investigation of functional loci for this distinctive sensory trait.

The New York table beet industry is expanding and has unique challenges to minimize crop loss in both conventional and organic production. Diseases may reduce plant population density and increase heterogeneity in a stand, reduce the duration of time foliage is healthy, and decrease the yield of marketable roots. Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn and Pythiumultimum Trow are dominant in the pathogen complex affecting crop stand and root health. Cercospora leaf spot (CLS) caused by the fungus, Cercospora beticola Sacc., is a highly destructive disease affecting foliar health. In conventional table beet production, fungicides are applied in-furrow and at emergence for early season and root disease control, and applied to foliage periodically thereafter for foliar disease control. Resistance within C. beticola populations to single-site mode-of-action fungicides poses the most significant threat to the resilience of conventional disease management. An integrated approach to reduce pesticide application when not economically warranted (i.e., a false positive) is urgently required. For foliar disease, improved scheduling of fungicides may reduce usage without loss of disease control. For soilborne diseases, pre-plant quantification of soilborne inoculum may support the selection of fields with lower inoculum densities to minimize risk of early season and root disease. For organic production, some approved products have moderate efficacy for foliar disease control, but strategies to reduce inoculum and select fields at lowest risk of disease will be paramount. Crop rotation has shown promise for disease management, but broad host range of several of the major soilborne pathogens limits the utility of this method in the production region. Enhanced knowledge of cultivar susceptibility to local populations of fungal pathogens responsible for foliar and root diseases is paramount, and adoption of commercially acceptable cultivars with improved resistance to CLS and Rhizoctonia crown and root rot has potential to transform disease management strategies for the New York table beet industry.