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Summary Pathogenic fungi cause major postharvest losses. During storage and ripening, fruit becomes highly susceptible to fungi that cause postharvest disease. Fungicides are effective treatments to limit disease. However, due to increased public concern for their possible side effects, there is a need to develop new strategies to control postharvest fungal pathogens. Botrytis cinerea, a common postharvest pathogen, was shown to uptake small double‐stranded RNA (dsRNA) molecules from the host plant. Such dsRNA can regulate gene expression through the RNA interference system. This work aimed to develop a synthetic dsRNA simultaneously targeting three essential transcripts active in the fungal ergosterol biosynthesis pathway (dsRNA‐ERG). Our results show initial uptake of dsRNA in the emergence zone of the germination tube that spreads throughout the fungus and results in down‐regulation of all three targeted transcripts. Application of dsRNA‐ERG decreased B. cinerea germination and growth in in vitro conditions and various fruits, leading to reduce grey‐mould decay. The inhibition of growth or decay was reversed by the addition of ergosterol. While dual treatment with dsRNA‐ERG and ergosterol‐inhibitor fungicide reduced by 100‐fold the required amount of fungicide to achieve the same protection rate. The application of dsRNA‐ERG induced systemic protection as shown by decreased decay development at inoculation points distant from the treatment point in tomato and pepper fruits. Overall, this study suggests that dsRNA‐ERG can effectively control B. cinerea growth and grey‐mould development suggesting its efficacy as a future method for postharvest control of fungal pathogens.

Blue mould, caused primarily by Penicillium expansum, is a major threat to the global pome fruit industry, causing multimillion‐dollar losses annually. The blue mould fungus negatively affects fruit quality, thereby reducing fresh fruit consumption, and significantly contributes to food loss. P. expansum also produces an array of mycotoxins that are detrimental to human health. Management options are limited and the emergence of fungicide‐resistant Penicillium spp. makes disease management difficult, therefore new approaches and tools are needed to combat blue mould in storage. This species profile comprises a comprehensive literature review of this aggressive pathogen associated with pomes (apple, pear, quince), focusing on biology, mechanisms of disease, control, genomics, and the newest developments in disease management. Taxonomy Penicillium expansum Link 1809. Domain Eukaryota, Kingdom Fungi, Phylum Ascomycota, Subphylum Pezizomycotina, Class Eurotiomycetes, Subclass: Eurotiomycetidae, Order Eurotiales; Family Trichocomaceae, Genus Penicillium, Species expansum. Biology A wide host range necrotrophic postharvest pathogen that requires a wound (e.g., stem pull, punctures, bruises, shoulder cracks) or natural openings (e.g., lenticel, stem end, calyx sinus) to gain ingress and infect. Toxins Patulin, citrinin, chaetoglobosins, communesins, roquefortine C, expansolides A and B, ochratoxin A, penitrem A, rubratoxin B, and penicillic acid. Host range Primarily apples, European pear, Asian pear, medlar, and quince. Blue mould has also been reported on stone fruits (cherry, plum, peach), small fruits (grape, strawberry, kiwi), and hazel nut. Disease symptoms Blue mould initially appears as light tan to dark brown circular lesions with a defined margin between the decayed and healthy tissues. The decayed tissue is soft and watery, and blue‐green spore masses appear on the decayed area, starting at the infection site and radiating outward as the decayed area ages. Disease control Preharvest fungicides with postharvest activity and postharvest fungicides are primarily used to control decay. Orchard and packinghouse sanitation methods are also critical components of an integrated pest management strategy. Useful websites Penn State Tree Fruit Production Guide (https://extension.psu.edu/forage‐and‐food‐crops/fruit), Washington State Comprehensive Tree Fruit (http://treefruit.wsu.edu/crop‐protection/disease‐management/blue‐mold/), The Apple Rot Doctor (https://waynejurick.wixsite.com/applerotdr), penicillium expansum genome sequences and resources (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genome/browse/#!/eukaryotes/11336/). This article is a synthesis and compilation of the latest information on the mycotoxingenic blue mould fungus from multiple perspectives that entail omics, biology, and tools for decay control.

This study modified a two-plate family plastic injection mould to become interchangeable by changing the core and cavity plates using an existing mould base. The plastic parts produced in the modified two-plate family plastic injection mould included tensile, hardness, impact and flexural test specimens. The cavities of the plastic parts were machined at the parting surface of core plate. Meanwhile, the feeding systems including runner and gate system were machined at the cavity plate to ensure molten plastic can be injected in the cavity area. Various factors have been considered during the designing and fabricating process. This is to ensure the process of assembly between mould plate and standard mould parts can be done perfectly. The plastic parts in the family mould were successfully injected after mould was completed assembled and mould trial was performed. The plastic parts which had been ejected from the family injection mould are purposely produced for future research to study the mechanical properties of plastic materials.

Timber buildings, including cross laminated timber (CLT), are gaining market shares globally, mainly due to anticipated environmental benefits, but a new technical solution also raises new questions. Durability is critical to obtain real sustainable constructions built for the future. There are field studies concerning hygrothermal conditions of timber structures, however, there is a lack of documented experiences combining hygrothermal conditions, mould growth potential and weather protection during construction using CLT. The use of full weather protection is being debated in the building industry as well as in the research community, due to lack of knowledge of the combined effects. How does weather protection during the construction affect hygrothermal conditions and risk of mould growth in a CLT structure? A case study using a weather protected six-storey CLT building was performed. The hygrothermal conditions – indoors and outdoors – were monitored during construction and samples from CLT were analysed with respect to mould. The results were analysed together with simulations of mould growth using actual hygrothermal conditions. Theoretical conclusions show the weather protection gives significantly improved conditions resulting in lower potential of mould growth compared to outdoor conditions. The results also show lessons to be learned concerning planning of the construction site.

Green mold ( Penicillium digitatum ) and blue mold ( Penicillium italicum ) are among the most economically impactful post-harvest diseases of citrus fruit worldwide. Post-harvest citrus diseases are largely controlled with synthetic fungicides such as pyrimethanil, imazalil, fludioxonil, and thiabendazole. Due to their toxic effects, prolonged and excessive application of these fungicides is gradually restricted in favor of safe and more eco-friendly alternatives. This review comprehensively describes alternative methods for the control of P. digitatum and P. italicum : (a) antagonistic micro-organisms, (b) plant extracts and essential oils, (c) biofungicides, (d) chitosan and chitosan-based citrus coatings, (e) heat treatments, (f) ionizing and non-ionizing irradiations, (g) food additives, and (h) synthetic elicitors. Integrating multiple approaches such as the application of biocontrol agents with food additives or heat treatments have overcome some drawbacks to single treatments. In addition, integrating treatment approaches could produce an additive or synergistic effect on controlling both molds for a satisfactory level of disease reduction in post-harvest citrus. Further research is warranted on plant resistance and fruit-pathogen interactions to develop safer strategies for the sustainable control of P. digitatum and P. italicum in citrus.

ABSTRACT An in vitro experiment was conducted during 2018–2020 at BARI, Bangladesh, Gazipur to screen the antagonistic effects of nine fungal and five bacterial antagonists against Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Lib.) de Bary. White mold disease of mustard is one of the most important diseases of mustard caused by the phytopathogen S. sclerotiorum. Among the fungal antagonist tested, Aspergillus niger 2, A. niger 3, Penicilium sp, Trichoderma harzianum, T. viride and T. virens were most effective in inhibiting 89.35% to 100% mycelial growth of S. sclerotiorum in the dual culture method on PDA medium. Among these antagonist fungi, Aspergillus niger 2, A. niger 3, T. harzianum, T. viride and T. virens were capable of completely stopping the sclerotia formation of S. sclerotiorum. The Culture filtrates of Trichoderma species viz., T. harzianum, T. viride, T. virens completely (100%) inhibited the radial growth of the test pathogen. The highest inhibition of radial growth of S. sclerotiorum observed with the volatile metabolites of Trichoderma viride (90%) followed by T. harzianum (89.39%) and T. virens (89.35%). More than 90% of mycelial growth was inhibited by Pseudomonas sp. and Bacillus subtilis strain B20 in dual culture on PDA medium and also effective in stopping sclerotia formation. In the volatile method, all the tested antagonistic bacteria showed moderate antagonistic effects against S. sclerotiorum. Further study is required to develop effective formulation of those biocontrol agents for controlling this alarming pathogen in field condition in an eco-friendly manner. Keywords: White mould, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, Antagonism, Biological control

Botrytis cinerea Pers. Fr. (teleomorph: Botryotinia fuckeliana) is a necrotrophic fungal pathogen that attacks a wide range of plants. This updated pathogen profile explores the extensive genetic diversity of B. cinerea, highlights the progress in genome sequencing, and provides current knowledge of genetic and molecular mechanisms employed by the fungus to attack its hosts. In addition, we also discuss recent innovative strategies to combat B. cinerea. Taxonomy Kingdom: Fungi, phylum: Ascomycota, subphylum: Pezizomycotina, class: Leotiomycetes, order: Helotiales, family: Sclerotiniaceae, genus: Botrytis, species: cinerea. Host range B. cinerea infects almost all of the plant groups (angiosperms, gymnosperms, pteridophytes, and bryophytes). To date, 1606 plant species have been identified as hosts of B. cinerea. Genetic diversity This polyphagous necrotroph has extensive genetic diversity at all population levels shaped by climate, geography, and plant host variation. Pathogenicity Genetic architecture of virulence and host specificity is polygenic using multiple weapons to target hosts, including secretory proteins, complex signal transduction pathways, metabolites, and mobile small RNA. Disease control strategies Efforts to control B. cinerea, being a high‐diversity generalist pathogen, are complicated. However, integrated disease management strategies that combine cultural practices, chemical and biological controls, and the use of appropriate crop varieties will lessen yield losses. Recently, studies conducted worldwide have explored the potential of small RNA as an efficient and environmentally friendly approach for combating grey mould. However, additional research is necessary, especially on risk assessment and regulatory frameworks, to fully harness the potential of this technology. Botrytis cinerea is a generalist fungal phytopathogen with high genetic diversity that utilizes diverse signalling cascades to infect a wide range of hosts.

Botrytis cinerea is an etiological agent of gray mould in leafy vegetables and is combated by fungicides. Fluazinam and azoxystrobin are commonly used fungicides, which inhibit oxidative phosphorylation in fungi. In this study, lettuce was (i) inoculated with B. cinerea; (ii) sprayed with azoxystrobin or fluazinam; (iii) inoculated with B. cinerea and sprayed with fungicides. This investigation confirmed that B. cinerea and fungicides affected lettuce’s biochemistry and stress status. B. cinerea influenced the behaviour of fungicides reflected by shortened dissipation of azoxystrobin compared to non-inoculated plants, while prolonged degradation of fluazinam. Stress caused by B. cinerea combined with fungicides reduced level of chlorophylls (53.46%) and carotenoids (75.42%), whereas increased phenolic compounds (81%), ascorbate concentrations (32.4%), and catalase activity (116.1%). Abiotic stress caused by fungicides contributed most to the induction of carotenoids (107.68 μg g−1 on dissipation day 3−1). Diphenyl picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activity and glutathione concentration peaked from the first hour of fungicides dissipation. For the first time correlation between the status of plant metabolites and fungicides during their dissipation was observed. These results indicate that non-enzymatic antioxidants could be the first-line compounds against stress factors, whereas ascorbate and antioxidant enzymes tend to mitigate stress only secondarily. The findings of this study help better understand plant biochemistry under biotic/abiotic stress conditions.