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Phenolic acids, found in cereals, legumes, vegetables, and fruits, have various biological functions. We aimed to compare the antihypertensive potential of different phenolic acids by evaluating their ACE inhibitory activity and cytoprotective capacity in EA.hy 926 endothelial cells. In addition, we explored the mechanism underlying the antihypertensive activity of sinapic acid. Of all the phenolic acids studied, sinapic acid, caffeic acid, coumaric acid, and ferulic acid significantly inhibited ACE activity. Moreover, gallic acid, sinapic acid, and ferulic acid significantly enhanced intracellular NO production. Based on the results of GSH depletion, ROS production, and MDA level analyses, sinapic acid was selected to study the mechanism underlying the antihypertensive effect. Sinapic acid decreases endothelial dysfunction by enhancing the expression of antioxidant-related proteins. Sinapic acid increased phosphorylation of eNOS and Akt in a dose-dependent manner. These findings indicate the potential of sinapic acid as a treatment for hypertension.

Abstract Honeysuckle phenolic acids have pharmacological properties that are both antioxidant and anti-inflammatory. It is difficult to avoid phenolic acid oxidative degradation as a food raw material using the conventional alcohol precipitation and heating concentration technique. This study presents a method for preparing phenolic acids by alcohol precipitation coupled with nanofiltration (NF) that avoids phenolic acid transformation while keeping antioxidant properties. In alcohol precipitation, a mathematical model has been developed for adjusting the molecular proportion and transfer rate of phenolic acids by changing the pH of the alcohol solution. At room temperature, alcohol precipitation can be concentrated using a 300 Da NF membrane. When the phenolic acid transfer rate surpasses 93%, the concentration of alcohol in the filtrate remains constant, enabling continuous usage in the alcohol precipitation process. Furthermore, the phenolic acids have IC50 values of 42.68 μg/ml–59.47 μg/ml for DPPH· removal and 243.96 μg/ml–309.22 μg/ml for ABTS+ removal, and the alcohol precipitation coupled with NF effectively retained the antioxidant activity of honeysuckle phenolic acids. This paper presented a model for preparing honeysuckle phenolic acid, which provided a novel approach for future research on standardisation and control of the food preparation process. Graphical Abstract Graphical Abstract

This study explored the effect of geographical and floral origins on the antioxidant activities of Saudi honey samples related to their content of short peptides originated from honeybee proteins. The studied antioxidants were the total protein concentration, catalase activity, phenolic acids and flavonoids. The antioxidant activity assays included were the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging assay, the ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assay and Ascorbic acid Equivalent Antioxidant Capacity (AEAC). The studied honey samples were obtained from the southwestern region of Saudi Arabia, namely Asir (65) and Jazan (25). The floral origins of the honey samples were Acacia (51), Ziziphus (4) and polyfloral (35). The LC/MS technique was used to detect the short peptides and the mascot database was used to identify the short peptides, their precursor proteins and the protease enzymes that produce them. Jazan honey was characterized by high number of short peptides. The short peptides were originated from honeybee proteins by the action of proteases from the honeybees and bacteria. The antioxidant activity of the honey samples increase with the increase of their content of short peptides and proteins. The amino acids type and sequence of the short peptides qualify them to act as antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-diabetic, anti-hypertension, immunomodulatory and cholesterol lowering peptides.

Summary Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge, a renowned medicinal herb in traditional Chinese medicine, displays distinctive root texture and high phenolic acid content, traits influenced by genetic and environmental factors. However, the underlying regulatory networks remain unclear. Here, we performed multi‐omics analyses on ecotypes from four major Chinese regions, focusing on environmental impacts on root structure, phenolic acid accumulation and lignin composition. Lower temperatures and increased UV‐B radiation were associated with elevated rosmarinic acid (RA) and salvianolic acid B (SAB) levels, particularly in the Sichuan ecotype. Structural models indicated that the radial arrangement of xylem conduits contributes to greater root hardness. Genomic assembly and comparative analysis of the Sichuan ecotype revealed a unique phenolic acid metabolism gene cluster, including SmWRKY40, a WRKY transcription factor essential for RA and SAB biosynthesis. Overexpression of SmWRKY40 enhanced phenolic acid levels and lignin content, whereas its knockout reduced root hardness. Integrating high‐throughput (DNA affinity purification sequencing) and point‐to‐point (Yeast One‐Hybrid, Dual‐Luciferase and Electrophoretic Mobility Shift Assay) protein‐DNA interaction detection platform further identified SmWRKY40 binding sites across ecotypes, revealing specific regulatory networks. Our findings provide insights into the molecular basis of root texture and bioactive compound accumulation, advancing breeding strategies for quality improvement in S. miltiorrhiza.

The effect of salt stress was evaluated on putative mutant seedlings of three polyembryonic mango genotypes viz., Bappakkai, Nekkare, and Kurukkan. Imposition of salinity stress resulted in a decrease in chlorophyll content, relative water content, and gas exchange parameters while enhancing the levels of stress markers like Na + /K + ratio, total phenols, and proline. In total, thirteen phenolic acid compounds were identified including eight hydroxybenzoic acids and five hydroxycinnamic acids wherein hydroxybenzoic acid (majorly gallic acid) comprised more than 99% of total phenolic acids. In all the three genotypes, the concentration of protocatechuic acid, 2, 4-Dihydroxy benzoic acid, gallic acid, chlorogenic acid, and t-cinnamic acid increased with increasing level of salt stress indicating their potential role in mango salt tolerance. Bappakkai recorded higher K + , highest fold increase in proline content (+ 7.27 fold), highest percent increase in chlorogenic acid (+ 510%), protocatechuic acid (+ 750%), and ferulic acid along with lower Na + /K + ratio and lower reduction in the levels of caffeic and sinapic acid at higher level of salt stress suggesting that putative mutants of Bappakkai were better at tolerating salt stress as compared to the other two genotypes. Exogenous application of ferulic acid (FA) to Nekkare putative mutants increased the activity of enzymatic antioxidants, superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and ascorbate peroxidase (APX). Further, quantitative real-time PCR analysis also revealed higher expression levels of SOD, CAT, and APX in FA-treated Nekkare mutants under salinity stress. The results of this study besides identifying distinct phenolic acid signatures in response to stresses like gamma irradiation and salinity, also confirm the potential of physical mutagenesis in breeding salt-tolerant rootstocks in mango.

BackgroundIn the past neutral and ionized, i.e., total, molecules of monoprotic phenolic acids such as cinnamic and benzoic acids were assumed to be the active inhibiting molecules for seedling processes. Re-analyses of data for water utilization, growth, and uptake of nutrient and phenolic acid by seedlings have, however, demonstrated that their inhibition is primarily due to neutral molecules. Thus, past estimates of concentrations for inhibition of seedling processes based on total molecules were with few exceptions incorrect, i.e., too high.MethodsPublished data for two monoprotic cinnamic acids and cucumber seedlings as surrogates for sensitive seedlings were utilized in an attempt to identify the relationships between neutral molecule concentrations and inhibition and to identify the inherent limitations for determining such relationships based on changes in treatment solution properties.Results and ConclusionsResults indicate that keeping track of available total monoprotic acid concentrations and solution pH values over time are a step in the right direction when determining the concentrations of neutral molecules required for the inhibition of a seedling process. However, different delay times for the inhibition of different seedling processes, increasing or decreasing inhibition of seedling processes as neutral molecules increase or decrease, respectively, potential changes in seedling tolerances, and the dynamics of treatment solution properties present obstacles for determining precise concentrations for the % inhibition of seedling processes by neutral molecules.

Endophytic fungi are microorganisms that are considered as a potential source of natural compounds, and can be applied in various industries. The aims of this research were molecular identification of endophytic fungi isolated from the Gundelia tournefortii stems, and investigation their biological activities as well as phenolic and fatty acid profile. Surface sterilized stems of G. tournefortii were placed on potato dextrose agar (PDA) to isolate the fungal endophytes. Genomic DNA was extracted by CTAB method, and PCR amplification was performed by ITS 1 and ITS 4 as primers. The enzyme production of endophytic fungi was determined based on the formation of a clear zone that appeared around the colonies of fungus. The anti-oxidant activity was evaluated by measuring the amount of free radicals DPPH. Also, the total phenol and flavonoid contents were measured obtained by Folin-Ciocalteu and aluminum chloride colorimetric methods, respectively. Moreover, the separation and identification of phenolic acids and fatty acids were done by HPLC and GC, respectively. Phylogenetic analysis was done based on the Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS) region, and five isolates were identified as following: Aspergillus niger , Penicillium glabrum , Alternaria alternata , A. tenuissima , and Mucor circinelloides . Evaluation of the enzymatic properties showed that P. gabrum (31 ± 1.9 mm), and A. niger (23 ± 1.7) had more ability for producing pectinase and cellulase. The anti-oxidant activity of isolates showed that A. alternata extract (IC 50  = 471 ± 29 µg/mL) had the highest anti-oxidant properties, followed by A. tenuissima extract (IC 50  = 512 ± 19 µg/mL). Also, the extract of A. alternata had the greatest amount of total phenols and flavonoids contents (8.2 ± 0.4 mg GAL/g and 2.3 ± 0.3 mg QE/g, respectively). The quantification analysis of phenolic acid showed that rosmarinic acid, para-coumaric acid, and meta-coumaric acid (42.02 ± 1.31, 7.53 ± 0.19, 5.41 ± 0.21 mg/g, respectively) were the main phenolic acids in the studied fungi. The analysis of fatty acids confirmed that, in all fungi, the main fatty acids were stearic acid (27.9–35.2%), oleic acid (11.3–17.3%), palmitic acid (16.9–23.2%), linoleic acid (5.8–11.6%), and caprylic acid (6.3–10.9%). Our finding showed that endophytic fungi are a source of bioactive compounds, which could be used in various industries. This is the first report of endophytic fungi associated with G. tournefortii , which provides knowledge on their future use on biotechnological processes.

peels are usually discarded as wastes; however, they are rich sources of Vitamin C, fibre, and many nutrients, including phenolics and flavonoids which are also good antioxidant agents. This study aimed to examine phytochemical composition and antioxidant capabilities of peel extracted conventionally with different methanol/water, ethanol/water, and acetone/water solvents. peels were subjected to extraction with 100%, 70% and 50% of methanol, ethanol, and acetone, respectively, as well as hot water extraction. Antioxidant activities of the peel extracts were examined via the 2,2-diphenylpicrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radical scavenging activity, ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assay, and oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) assay. Total phenolic content and total flavonoid content of the extracts were measured via the Folin-Ciocalteau method and the aluminium chloride colorimetric method, respectively. Phenolic acid and organic acid composition of the peel extracts were further determined via high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) while flavonoid content was identified via ultra performance liquid chromatography (UPLC). DPPH radical scavenging activity of peel extracts varied from 8.35 to 18.20 mg TE/g, FRAP ranged from 95.00 to 296.61 mmol Fe(II)/g, while ORAC value ranged from 0.31 to 0.92 mol TE/g. Significant level of association between the assays was observed especially between TPC and FRAP (R-square = 0.95,  < 0.0001). TPC of various peel extracts ranged from 12.08 to 38.24 mg GAE/g, with 70% acetone/water extract (AEC) showing the highest TPC. TFC ranged from 1.90 to 5.51 mg CE/g. Extraction yield ranged from 0.33 to 0.54 g/g DW and tended to increase with increasing water concentration in the solvent. In the phytochemical investigation, five phenolic acids were identified using HPLC, including gallic acid, protocatechuic acid, 4-hydroxybenzoic acid, caffeic acid and ferulic acid. A total of five organic acids including lactic acid, citric acid, L-mallic acid, kojic acid and ascorbic acid were quantified via HPLC. In addition, concentrations of six flavonoids including catechin, epigallocatechin, vitexin, rutin, luteolin and apigenin were determined via UPLC. Phytochemicals including phenolics and flavonoids in peel extracts exhibited good antioxidant properties. Among the extracts, 70% AEC with highest TPC and high TFC content showed greatest antioxidant activity in all three assays. Different phenolic acids, organic acids and flavonoids were also identified from the extracts. This study indicated that peels contained potential antioxidant compounds which could be exploited as value added products in the food industry.

MAIN CONCLUSION : Twenty-nine genes related to phenolic acid biosynthesis were identified in the Salvia miltiorrhiza genome. Nineteen of these are described for the first time, with ten genes experimentally correlating to phenolic acid biosynthesis. Vast stores of secondary metabolites exist in plants, many of which possess biological activities related to human health. Phenolic acid derivatives are a class of valuable bioactive pharmaceuticals abundant in the widely used Chinese medicinal herb, Salvia miltiorrhiza. The biosynthetic pathway for phenolic acids differs in this species from that of other investigated plants. However, the molecular basis for this is unknown, with systematic analysis of the genes involved not yet performed. As the first step towards unraveling this complex biosynthetic pathway in S. miltiorrhiza, the current genome assembly was searched for putatively involved genes. Twenty-nine genes were revealed, 19 of which are described here for the first time. These include 15 genes predicted in the phenylpropanoid pathway; seven genes in the tyrosine-derived pathway; six genes encoding putative hydroxycinnamoyltransferases, and one CYP98A, namely CYP98A78. The promoter regions, gene structures and expression patterns of these genes were examined. Furthermore, conserved domains and phylogenetic relationships with homologous proteins in other species were revealed. Most of the key enzymes, including 4-coumarate: CoA ligase, 4-hydroxyphenylpyruvate reductase and hydroxycinnamoyltransferase, were found in multiple copies, each exhibiting different characteristics. Ten genes putatively involved in rosmarinic acid biosynthesis are also described. These findings provide a foundation for further analysis of this complex and diverse pathway, with potential to enhance the synthesis of water-soluble medicinal compounds in S. miltiorrhiza.

A series of phenolic acid chitooligosaccharide (COS) derivatives synthesized by two mild and green methods were illuminated in this paper. Seven phenolic acids were selected to combine two kinds of COS derivatives: the phenolic acid chitooligosaccharide salt derivatives and the phenolic-acid-acylated chitooligosaccharide derivatives. The structures of the derivatives were characterized by FT-IR and 1H NMR spectra. The antioxidant experiment results in vitro (including DPPH-radical scavenging activity, superoxide-radical scavenging activity, hydroxyl-radical scavenging ability, and reducing power) demonstrated that the derivatives exhibited significantly enhanced antioxidant activity compared to COS. Moreover, the study showed that the phenolic acid chitooligosaccharide salts had stronger antioxidant activity than phenolic-acid-acylated chitooligosaccharide. The cytotoxicity assay of L929 cells in vitro indicated that the derivatives had low cytotoxicity and good biocompatibility. In conclusion, this study provides a possible synthetic method for developing novel and nontoxic antioxidant agents which can be used in the food and cosmetics industry.