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Invasive rats are one of the world's most successful animal groups that cause native species extinctions and ecosystem change, particularly on islands. On large islands, rat eradication is often impossible and population control, defined as the local limitation of rat abundance, is now routinely performed on many of the world's islands as an alternative management tool. However, a synthesis of the motivations, techniques, costs, and outcomes of such rat-control projects is lacking. We reviewed the literature, searched relevant websites, and conducted a survey via a questionnaire to synthesize the available information on rat-control projects in island natural areas worldwide to improve rat management and native species conservation. Data were collected from 136 projects conducted over the last 40 years; most were located in Australasia (46%) and the tropical Pacific (25%) in forest ecosystems (65%) and coastal strands (22%). Most of the projects targeted Rattus rattus and most (82%) were aimed at protecting birds and endangered ecosystems. Poisoning (35%) and a combination of trapping and poisoning (42%) were the most common methods. Poisoning allows for treatment of larger areas, and poison projects generally last longer than trapping projects. Second-generation anticoagulants (mainly brodifacoum and bromadiolone) were used most often. The median annual cost for rat-control projects was US$17,262 or US$227/ha. Median project duration was 4 years. For 58% of the projects, rat population reduction was reported, and 51% of projects showed evidence of positive effects on biodiversity. Our data were from few countries, revealing the need to expand rat-control distribution especially in some biodiversity hotspots. Improvement in control methods is needed as is regular monitoring to assess short- and long-term effectiveness of rat-control. Las ratas invasoras son uno de los grupos animales más exitosos a nivel mundial que ocasionan la extinción de especies nativas y cambios en los ecosistemas, particularmente en las islas. En las islas grandes, la erradicación de las ratas es generalmente imposible y el control de población, definido como la limitación local de la abundancia de ratas, hoy en día se practica rutinariamente en muchas de las islas del mundo como una herramienta alternativa de manejo. Sin embargo, se carece de una síntesis de motivaciones, técnicas, costos y resultados de dichos proyectos de control de ratas. Revisamos la literatura, buscamos sitios web relevantes, y realizamos una encuesta por medio de un cuestionario para sintetizar la información disponible sobre los proyectos de control de ratas en las áreas naturales isleñas en todo el mundo para así mejorar el manejo de ratas y la conservación de especies nativas. Se recolectaron datos de 136 proyectos que se realizaron en los últimos 40 años; la mayoría se ubicaron en Australasia (46 %) y el Pacífico tropical (25 %) en ecosistemas boscosos (65 %) y franjas costeras (22 %). La mayoría de los proyectos estaban enfocados en Rattus rattus, y la mayoría (82 %) estaban centrados en la protección de aves y ecosistemas en peligro de extinción. Los métodos más comunes fueron el envenenamiento (35 %) y una combinación de trampas y veneno (42 %). El envenenamiento permite tratar con áreas más grandes y generalmente dura más tiempo que el trampeo. Los anti-coagulantes de segunda generación (principalmente el brodifacoum y la briomadiolona) fueron los más usados. El costo medio anual de los proyectos de control de ratas fue de US$17,262 o de US$227/ha. La duración media de los proyectos fue de cuatro años. Para el 58 % de los proyectos, se reportó una reducción en la población de ratas, y el 51 % de los proyectos mostró evidencias de un efecto positivo sobre la biodiversidad. Nuestros datos provienen de pocos países, lo que revela la necesidad de expandir la distribución del control de ratas, especialmente en algunos puntos calientes de biodiversidad. Se necesita mejorar los métodos del control, así como un monitoreo regular para evaluar la efectividad del control de ratas a corto y largo plazo.

The integrated management of a serious agricultural pest, the common vole (Microtus arvalis), should be based on modern and empirically proven approaches. The aim of this paper was to map the historical development of the monitoring and control practices of the common vole in the Czech Republic (CR) territory. Published records of vole population outbreaks and heavy crop damage have been documented in the Czech literature since the turn of the 20th century, and even in crops planted in highly fragmented and diversified agricultural landscapes. In the CR, systematic state monitoring was introduced in 1955. In the 1930’s, there were more than 100 various rodent preparations against the common vole, which were formulated as smoke generators, gases, baits, dusts, toxic mushy mass, and insecticide sprays. Currently, there are only six preparations with three active ingredients registered in the CR. Zinc phosphide is the only active ingredient that has been used from the 1940s to the present, whereas anticoagulants were banned for vole control in 2011 owing to the high environmental risks. The poisoning of nontarget animals by rodenticides is not a new phenomenon tied to synthetic pesticides; poisoning by botanical extracts (strychnine) was documented more than 100 years ago. This review may provide both historical lessons for current practice and new incentives for future research.

Anticoagulant poisoning is a common rodent control method in urban areas, but rodents may exhibit versatile feeding behavioural habits in varying environmental conditions. This study has been conducted to determine those environmental factors that could directly influence bait consumption and which therefore may affect an urban rodent control plan carried out with chemical methods. In the city of Bologna (Italy), 2500 bait stations have been monitored in various urban biotopes and the bait consumption studied in relation to several environmental factors, using both bivariate and multivariate analysis. Results reveal that the rodent patch distribution triggers the avoidance of baits placed outside of their home-range, hence the importance on bait placement. The logistic regression model confirms that vegetation, harbourage and water supplies are important variables in determining bait consumption, probably because they may spatially and temporarily facilitate the agoraphobic rodent movement, ensuring undisturbed bait consumption. The role of predators (dogs and cats) and food competitors (synanthropic birds) remains insignificant. However, bait eating invertebrates may consume part of the bait. For a proper rodent control plan the first real need is to minimize the alternative food sources, which may compete with baits. Weather conditions in which rodents could possibly pass unnoticed (fog and rainfall) may encourage bait consumption, vice versa with a cold climate. The considered environmental factors have satisfactorily explained bait consumption, highlighting the importance of human influence. The study of environmental factors may be useful in categorizing several site-specific conditions where rodent control efforts should be targeted, enhancing any intervention by matching the correct and specific strategy.

Biological pest control is gaining greater acceptance as an important part of integrated pest management for sustainable agriculture. However, knowledge regarding biological control of rodent pests is limited, and its effectiveness in temperate areas has not been quantified. In traditional Japanese apple orchards, the Ural owl Strix uralensis breeds in tree hollows and preys on the Japanese field vole Microtus montebelli, a native pest species that can harm fruit production. In this study, we hypothesised that the Ural owl, a generalist predator, can act as a biological control agent by reducing vole densities in temperate orchards. To quantify the pest control effects of breeding Ural owls, we first analysed the diet of individual owls nesting in apple tree hollows. Second, we installed nest boxes in orchards to attract breeding owl pairs and collected data on vole population changes around owl nests to compare with control areas. The population changes were analysed using a generalised linear mixed model to assess the effect of breeding owls within their breeding territory. The model considered seasonal fluctuations in vole population size as well as surrounding land‐use. We also examined vole populations around the owl nests in April, and the distance between nests and forested areas, to determine if these variables influenced nest site selection. Voles were the primary prey of Ural owls breeding in orchards and the owls reduced vole populations within their estimated breeding territories by 63% (±SE: 53%–70%) compared with the predicted density without owls. Owls preferred to nest in orchards with higher vole population densities in April. Our findings also indicate that higher occupancy rates are possible by distributing nest boxes based on Ural owl breeding territory size (306 m radius circle in our study). Synthesis and applications. As breeding Ural owls provide significant pest control effects within their breeding territories, the reintroduction of breeding Ural owl pairs within orchards would contribute to rodent pest control. Promoting the reproduction of native raptors in agricultural areas can be an option for developing integrated pest management while simultaneously maintaining regional biodiversity. Foreign Language 天敵を利用して,農作物を加害する有害生物を抑制する生物的防除手法は,総合的有害生物管理 (IPM; Integrated Pest Management) の主要な柱の一つとして注目を集めつつある.しかしダニや昆虫等を対象にした生物的防除の研究は幅広く行われている一方,同じく主要な加害動物である小型哺乳類の生物的防除の研究は種や地域に限定的で,温帯地域における小型哺乳類の生物的防除の研究は少ない.そこで本研究では,近年まで日本の伝統的なリンゴ園で繁殖していたフクロウStrix uralensisに注目した.フクロウは小型哺乳類の個体数を抑制するとされるジェネラリスト型捕食者である.繁殖期にはリンゴの樹洞に営巣し,害獣であるハタネズミMicrotus montebelliを餌として捕食するが,近年は栽培方法の変化に伴い果樹園内の樹洞が減少し,フクロウの営巣も減少している.本研究では,リンゴ園で繁殖するフクロウがハタネズミの個体数に与える効果を定量的に把握し,フクロウによる生物的防除の可能性を検証することとした. フクロウの効果を定量化するため,まずリンゴの樹洞で繁殖するフクロウが雛に給餌する餌生物を調査した.次にリンゴ園に巣箱を設置してフクロウの繁殖を誘致し,営巣地と営巣地以外のリンゴ園間で,ハタネズミ個体数の季節変化を比較した.個体数解析には一般化線形混合モデルを用い,個体数の基本的な季節変動や周辺の土地利用の影響を考慮したうえで,フクロウの繁殖がハタネズミ個体数に与えた影響を抽出した.またフクロウの営巣場所の選好性を見るため,巣箱周辺の4月のハタネズミ生息密度と,巣箱から森林までの距離を調査し,営巣した巣箱と営巣しなかった巣箱間で比較した. 調査の結果,リンゴ園で繁殖するフクロウが育雛期に巣に運び込んだ餌生物の8割以上がハタネズミであった.またフクロウの繁殖によって,巣周辺のハタネズミ密度は,フクロウの繁殖がなかった場合と比較して63% (± SE: 53%–70%) 減少していた.さらに,フクロウは,4月時点でのハタネズミ生息密度が高い園地を選択的に繁殖に利用していた.また調査期間中の繁殖結果より,フクロウの繁殖期のなわばり面積 (本研究対象地では半径306 mの円) を考慮して巣箱架設を行うことで,巣箱利用率を高められることも示唆された. Synthesis and applications. リンゴ園で繁殖するフクロウは,営巣地周辺のハタネズミ個体数を有意に低減していることが明らかになった.減少しているフクロウの繁殖を巣箱によって再誘致することは,リンゴ園における害獣管理に有効であると考えられる.農地における在来の猛禽類の繁殖支援は,総合的有害生物管理の有効な手段になりうると同時に,地域の生物多様性保全にも貢献できるだろう. As breeding Ural owls provide significant pest control effects within their breeding territories, the reintroduction of breeding Ural owl pairs within orchards would contribute to rodent pest control. Promoting the reproduction of native raptors in agricultural areas can be an option for developing integrated pest management while simultaneously maintaining regional biodiversity.

Synanthropic rodents are ubiquitous in low-income communities and pose risks for human health, as they are generally resistant to control programs. However, few or no studies have evaluated the long-term effect of chemical and infrastructural interventions on rodent population dynamics, especially in urban low-income communities, or evaluated the potential recovery of their population following interventions. We conducted a longitudinal study in a low-income community in the city of Salvador (BA, Brazil) to characterize the effect of interventions (chemical and infrastructural) on the dynamics of rodent population, and documented the post-intervention recovery of their population. We evaluated the degree of rodent infestation in 117 households/sampling points over three years (2014–2017), using tracking plates, a proxy for rodent abundance/activity. We reported a significant lower rodent activity/abundance after the chemical and infrastructural interventions (Z = −4.691 (p < 0.001)), with track plate positivity decreasing to 28% from 70% after and before interventions respectively. Therefore, the combination of chemical and infrastructural interventions significantly decreased the degree of rodent infestation in the study area. In addition, no rodent population rebound was recorded until almost a year post-intervention, and the post-intervention infestation level did not attain the pre-intervention level all through the study. Moreover, among pre-treatment conditions, access to sewer rather than the availability of food was the variable most closely associated with household rodent infestation. Our study indicates that Integrated Pest Management (IPM)-approaches are more effective in reducing rodent infestation than the use of a single method. Our findings will be useful in providing guidance for long-term rodent control programs, especially in urban low-income communities.

Effective management of rodent pests necessitates efficient population surveillance. Many of the available methods currently used for estimating rodent populations are either costly or time‐intensive. Rodent trapping demands significant resources, while tracking plates (TP) require high technical expertise and weeks to months of dedicated effort to satisfactorily interpret the plates. Here, we propose integrating Machine Learning techniques to evaluate plates with signs of rodent marks and compare their accuracy with that of conventional human‐interpreted plates. We employed the Otsu method to transform plates from RGB color images to grayscale images, highlighting regions of interest. Subsequently, we applied a global threshold to create binary images, assigning values above a globally determined threshold as 1s and others as 0s. The original images were transformed into new versions with 25 small samples, highlighting regions of interest based on the binary images. We used dimensionality reduction methods to identify the fundamental structure of high‐dimensional data and determined the most important patterns of interest on the plates. Among the methods, Principal Component Analysis, Independent Component Analysis, and Legendre Moments methods were used to visualize patterns and conduct exploratory data analysis. The k ‐nearest neighbors, a versatile and intuitive classification method relying on the similarity principle, predicted the feature vector of PCA, ICA, and LM () results. Ultimately, results from PCA and LM compared favorably against the conventional labur‐intensive manual method, thus proffering those in the field of disease ecology a better alternative for conducting timely and cost‐effective rodent surveillance to monitor rodent distribution hotspots during rodent management programs. We propose a novel approach that could significantly enhance the protocols of rodent surveillance programs, particularly in Low‐ and Middle‐Income Countries, where expertise in interpreting TPs may be limited to enhance rodent surveillance evaluation and timely rodent management while contributing to the indirect control of rodent‐borne zoonoses.

Pest control is a global issue for agriculture, health, biodiversity conservation and economy. Anticoagulant rodenticides are used over large areas to control rodent pests and can cause widespread poisoning of nontarget wildlife. In France, bromadiolone is the only pesticide authorized to control the water vole Arvicola terrestris Scherman, in grasslands. Since 2001, legislation has been in place to replace curative treatments by preventive ones and limit the quantity of rodenticide used. As the legislation took effect over time, the impact on red fox Vulpes vulpes populations was monitored. Fox populations and bromadiolone treatments were monitored in the Doubs Department (5000 km² area), France. Fox counts were carried out during spring, and vole control was primarily conducted in autumn. Relative fox densities (Kilometric Abundance Index: KAI) obtained per commune for year n (2004-2009) were related to treatments achieved during year n−1 (2003-2008). Treatments from year n−2 were used to investigate possible delayed responses in fox populations. Kilometric Abundance Index of foxes was significantly related to treatment intensities in years n−1 and n−2. The impact was greatest in a large area (>1000 km²), where intensive treatments were achieved in 2003. Fox KAI generally remained dramatically low in this area until 2005, after which a partial recovery was observed. The same area was treated again from 2006 to 2008 but with only half the amount of bait per hectare that was used in 2003. These treatments were followed by a moderate decrease in fox populations. Synthesis and applications: We have established, for the first time on a regional scale, the negative impact of a rodenticide on fox populations. We have shown that a shift to preventive treatments with reduced anticoagulant rodenticide use is less harmful to fox populations. However, to approach a zero impact, treatments should be reduced further by limitation of bait quantities authorized per hectare and per commune and using alternative methods to chemical control. Long-term monitoring of wildlife populations using index methods can provide valuable information about the adverse effects of pesticides; therefore, we recommend their inclusion in the assessment of pest management practices.

In an update of earlier surveys conducted in Connecticut and New Jersey in the mid-1990s, an online survey of private commercial pest control firms engaged in residential tick control showed that the application of synthetic acaricides continues to be the primary method of control used. The carbamate and organophospate acaricides, previously the most commonly used against ticks, have given way to synthetic pyrethroids and, to a lesser extent, the use of natural product/organic acaricides. Typical costs for a single acaricide application today ($100–$200 for a 1 acre [0.4 ha] property) remain similar to those reported from the earlier surveys, although the frequency of applications and, therefore, also the overall annual cost has increased. The application habitats within residential properties, life stages targeted, and application equipment used have not changed appreciably since the mid-1990s. While most survey respondents expressed knowledge of natural product acaricides and Damminix Tick Tubes, many reported that they either did not employ or knew very little about other alternative tick control methods (including entomopathogenic fungus and topical application of acaricides to tick hosts via 4-Poster deer treatment stations or Select TCS rodent bait boxes). This suggests either a failure to adequately inform the pest management industry and their potential client base of the availability of alternate methods, and/or industry concerns about cost and effectiveness of the alternatives.

The diverse functional roles of over 6,000 species of extant mammals that range in body size across eight orders of magnitude, from blue whales (Balaenoptera musculus) to tiny Etruscan shrews (Suncus etruscus), contribute to shaping Earth's ecosystems. Large mammalian herbivores (e.g., African elephants [Loxodonta africana], American bison [Bison bison], hippopotamuses [Hippopotamus amphibius]) and carnivores (e.g., wolves [Canis lupus], pumas [Puma concolor], sea otters [Enhydra lutris]) often have significant effects on primary producers in terrestrial, aquatic, and marine systems through nutrient cycling, energy flow, and the exertion of bottom-up and top-down processes. Small mammals, like bats, are important pollinators, dispersers of fruits, and consumers of arthropods, and others, especially rodents and primates, are important predators and dispersers of seeds. Many of these mammal-mediated processes occur simultaneously in the same ecosystem, and have significant effects on community structure of primary producers that in turn alter communities of other vertebrates and invertebrates. Many mammals also are ecosystem engineers (e.g., elephants, American beavers [Castor canadensis], porcupines [Erithezon dorsatum], prairie dogs [Cynomys spp.]) that create, significantly modify, or destroy habitat, and by doing so, they alter ecosystem structure and function and increase habitat heterogeneity and biodiversity. The extensive influence mammals have on ecosystems results in important services that contribute to human well-being, such as pollination, insect pest control, and bioturbation of soils. The rapid declines in abundance of many mammal populations and the associated increase in extinction risk raise conservation concerns for mammals. To maintain mammalian diversity and the critical ecosystem processes they provide, scientists need to mobilize concern for their status and strive for more effective and comprehensive conservation action. We provide insights and synthesis on the ecological role of mammals and highlight key research questions and future directions for their conservation.

Rodents are notorious pests, known for transmitting major public health diseases and causing agricultural and economic losses. The lack of site-specific and national standardised rodent surveillance in several disadvantaged communities has rendered interventions targeted towards rodent control as often ineffective. Here, by using the example from a pilot case-study in the Bahamas, we present a unique experience wherein, through multidisciplinary and community engagement, we simultaneously developed a standardised national surveillance protocol, and performed two parallel but integrated activities: (1) eight days of theoretical and practical training of selected participants; and (2) a three-month post-training pilot rodent surveillance in the urban community of Over-the-Hill, Nassau, The Bahamas. To account for social and environmental conditions influencing rodent proliferation in the Bahamas, we engaged selected influential community members through a semi-structured interview and gathered additional site-specific information using a modified Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC) exterior and interior rodent evaluation form, along with other validated instruments such as tracking plates and snap trapping, to test and establish a standardised site-specific rodent surveillance protocol tailored for the Bahamas. Our engagement with community members highlighted poor disposal of animal and human food, irregular garbage collection, unapproved refuse storage, lack of accessible dumpsters, poor bulk waste management, ownership problems and structural deficiencies as major factors fuelling rodent proliferation in the study areas. Accordingly, results from our pilot survey using active rodent signs (that is, the presence of rodent runs, burrows, faecal material or gnawed material) as a proxy of rodent infestation in a generalized linear model confirmed that the variables earlier identified during the community engagement program as significantly correlated with rodent activities (and capturing) across the study areas. The successful implementation of the novel site-specific protocol by trained participants, along with the correlation of their findings with those recorded during the community engagement program, underscores its suitability and applicability in disadvantaged urban settings. This experience should serve as a reference for promoting a standardised protocol for monitoring rodent activities in many disadvantaged urban settings of the Global South, while also fostering a holistic understanding of rodent proliferation. Through this pilot case-study, we advocate for the feasibility of developing sustainable rodent control interventions that are acceptable to both local communities and public authorities, particularly through the involvement of a multidisciplinary team of professionals and community members.