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Tillage and cropping sequence may influence C and N sequestration, microbial activities, and N mineralization in dryland soil aggregates. We evaluated the 21‐yr effect of tillage and cropping sequence combinations on C and N fractions in aggregates of a Dooley sandy loam (fine‐loamy, mixed, superactive, frigid Typic Argiustolls) at the 0‐ to 20‐cm depth in eastern Montana. Tillage and cropping sequences were no‐tilled continuous spring wheat (NTCW) (Triticum aestivum L.), spring‐tilled continuous spring wheat (STCW), fall‐ and spring‐tilled continuous spring wheat (FSTCW), fall‐ and spring‐tilled spring wheat‐barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) (1984–1999) followed by spring wheat‐pea (Pisum sativum L.)(2000–2004)(FSTW‐B/P), and spring‐tilled spring wheat‐fallow (STW‐F). Carbon and N fractions were soil organic C (SOC), total N (STN), particulate organic C and N (POC and PON), microbial biomass C and N (MBC and MBN), potential C and N mineralization (PCM and PNM), NH4–N, and NO3–N. Aggregate proportion was greater in NTCW than in FSTCW in the 4.75‐ to 2.00‐mm aggregate‐size class at 0 to 5 cm but was greater in STW‐F than in STCW in the 2.00‐ to 0.25‐mm size class at 5 to 20 cm. After 21 yr, STW‐F reduced SOC, STN, POC, and PON concentrations in aggregates by 34 to 42% at 0‐ to 5‐cm and by 20 to 32% at 5‐ to 20‐cm compared with NTCW and STCW. The PCM and MBC were greater in NTCW and STCW than in STW‐F in the <2.00‐mm size class at 0 to 5 cm but MBN varied with treatments, aggregate‐size classes, and soil depths. Compared with other treatments, NH4–N concentration was lower in STW‐F in the 4.75‐ to 0.25‐mm size class but PNM and NO3–N were greater in FSTW‐B/P in the <2.00‐mm size class. Long‐term reduced tillage with continuous spring wheat increased soil aggregation, C and N sequestration, and microbial biomass and activities in all aggregates but increased tillage intensity with spring wheat‐barley/pea rotation increased N mineralization and availability in small aggregates compared with the conventional STW‐F.

The thermal conditions of soil are important in practical agricultural production. The characteristics of heat flux, moisture content, thermal conductivity, and other soil parameters vary with temperature. This study uses VADOSE/W to create a model of heat transmission between soil and atmosphere, simulating daily changes in soil temperature using sand mulching. By using the published data to verify the model, the results show that the fitting effect is good and the reliability of the model is verified. We also used this model to determine the temporal and spatial distributions of soil temperature, temperature differences, and a temperature gradient for sand mulching and bare soil during the growing season of spring wheat. These results indicated that the sand mulching preserved heat at night. The difference in temperature at each depth and the temperature gradient became negative with the gradual increase in solar altitude. The difference in soil temperature at each depth and the temperature gradient tended to become positive by 22:00. These results indicated that the sand mulch effectively maintained the soil temperature in the morning and night during the growing season and impeded the transfer of heat at mid-day. This study provides a new method for determining the transfer of heat in sand-mulched soil, which can guide the effective regulation of soil temperature.

Hard white wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is a value-added product because of its processing advantages over red wheat; however, white wheat tends to be more susceptible to pre-harvest sprouting (PHS). To identify quantitative trait loci (QTLs) associated with PHS tolerance, we developed a doubled haploid (DH) mapping population from the cross AC Domain (red seeded) x White-RL4137 (white seeded). A genetic map was constructed using microsatellite markers located on chromosome groups 3, 4, 5 and 6. A population of 174 DH lines was characterized for important aspects of PHS including sprouting index, germination index, Hagberg falling number and seed coat colour. A total of 11 QTLs were identified on group 3 chromosomes and on chromosome 5D. Seven QTLs associated with the PHS traits were found to be co-incident with seed coat colour on chromosomes 3A, 3B and 3D. The 5D PHS QTL was notable because it is independent of seed coat colour.

Wheat stripe rust is a fungal disease caused by Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici . The outbreak of wheat stripe rust will have a great impact on wheat production in Xinjiang, China. In order to identify resistance to wheat stripe rust and the distribution of resistance genes in 82 wheat cultivars (41 spring wheat and 41 winter wheat), wheat seedling resistance was evaluated using CYR32, CYR33 and CYR34, and wheat adult plant stage resistance was identified using a combination of 3 races. Six molecular markers were used to identify Yr29 , Yr39 , Yr46 , Yr69 and YrTr1 in 82 wheat cultivars. The results showed that 3 of 82 wheat cultivars (Xinchun No.14, Xinchun No.22, and Xindong No.22) were immune to stripe rust at the adult plant stage. Xinchun No.29, Xinchun No.32, Xindong No.5 and Xindong No.29 were resistant at all stage. The highest detection rates were for Yr69 and YrTr1 , at 78.05% and 76.83%. However, the detection rates for Yr39 and Yr46 were only 0 and 2.44%, respectively. The Xindong No.22 were detected with the most resistance genes, which included 4 Yr genes. Furthermore, Xindong No.22 were immune to the disease at adult plant stage. The results confirmed the resistance gene distribution of the wheat cultivars in Xinjiang were heterogeneously, and the number of Yr genes was significantly and positively correlated with wheat cultivars resistant to stripe rust.

Opportunities exist to reduce nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions from nitrogen (N) fertilizers using enhanced efficiency fertilizers (EEFs) and managing application timing. This study examined (1) application timing (fall/spring) and (2) fertilizer N source on N2O emissions, yield, and N uptake of Canadian hard red spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) in Southern Manitoba. Fertilizer N sources included granular urea and four EEF products: (1) polymer‐coated urea (environmentally smart nitrogen [ESN]); (2) urea plus nitrification inhibitor (eNtrench); (3) urea plus urease inhibitor (Limus); and (4) urea plus nitrification and urease inhibitor (SuperU). Nitrification‐inhibited products most consistently reduced N2O emissions while maintaining productivity. Compared to urea alone, urea + eNtrench was most effective in reducing cumulative N2O emissions by 47%–64% at four of six site‐years. SuperU reduced N2O emissions by 37%–57% at three of six site‐years. ESN and urea + Limus did not affect emissions in most years. Wheat yield, protein, and N uptake were unaffected by N source in five of six site‐years. Compared to spring, fall application gave greater N2O emissions by 33%–67% at three of six site‐years due to spring‐thaw emissions. Fall was inferior to spring application in wetter site years with lower yield, protein, and N uptake. Overall, nitrification‐inhibited products—either alone or with a urease inhibitor—are a promising tool to reduce N2O emissions while maintaining wheat productivity in Manitoba. However, given that there were few consistent increases in yield or protein, the additional cost of the inhibitors will be a barrier to adoption. Core Ideas EEF products with nitrification and nitrification/urease inhibitors consistently reduced N2O emissions. Controlled release urea and urease‐inhibited urea did not reduce N2O emissions. Fall application of urea increased N2O emissions in three site‐years compared to spring application. The nitrification inhibitors applied with urea in fall or spring were effective to reduce N2O emissions. Overall, fall application decreased yield, grain protein, and N uptake in relatively wet years.

Recent outbreaks traced to contaminated flour have created a need in the milling industry for a process that reduces pathogens in wheat while maintaining its functional properties. Vacuum steam treatment is a promising technology for treatment of low-moisture foods. Traditional thermal treatment methods can compromise wheat functionality due to high temperatures; thus, maintaining the functional quality of the wheat protein was critical for this research. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of vacuum steam treatment of hard red spring (HRS) wheat kernels on final flour quality and the overall efficacy of vacuum stream treatment for reducing pathogens on HRS wheat kernels. HRS wheat samples were treated with steam under vacuum at 65, 70, 75, and 85°C for 4 and 8 min. Significant changes in dough and baked product functionality were observed for treatments at ≥70°C. Treatment time had no significant effect on the qualities evaluated. After determining that vacuum steam treatment at 65°C best preserved product quality, HRS wheat was inoculated with Escherichia coli O121 and Salmonella Enteritidis PT 30 and processed at 65°C for 0, 2, 4, 6, or 8 min. The treatments achieved a maximum average reduction of 3.57 ± 0.33 log CFU/g for E. coli O121 and 3.21 ± 0.27 log CFU/g for Salmonella. Vacuum steam treatment could be an effective pathogen inactivation method for the flour milling industry.

Abstract Hard red spring (HRS) wheat is a high-protein class prized for its nutritional value and functional properties in whole grain products. While nitrogen (N) fertilization is known to affect yield and protein content, its influence on antioxidant activity and antinutritional factors remains less explored. This study examined the effects of three N application rates (0, 100, and 150 lb/acre) on grain composition, antioxidant capacity, and phytic acid (PA) content in three HRS wheat varieties grown at multiple locations in North Dakota and Minnesota. Antioxidant capacity was evaluated via total phenolics, flavonoids, and radical scavenging assays (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl [DPPH], 2,2-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonate) [ABTS], and ferric reducing antioxidant power [FRAP]), while PA was measured as an indicator of antinutritional potential. Application of 150 lb/acre N significantly increased grain protein content (20%–24%, p < .05) and enhanced antioxidant activity, with DPPH, ABTS, and FRAP values rising by 32%, 42%, and 82%, respectively, relative to the control. These increases were associated with elevated levels of free (63%) and bound (53%) phenolics, as well as greater flavonoid accumulation. In contrast, PA content declined significantly, from 8.5 to 5.5 mg/g (p < .05), and was strongly negatively correlated with N rate (r = −0.8). Protein content, phenolics, flavonoids, antioxidant activity, and PA levels were all significantly affected by genotype (G), environment (E), and G × E interactions. These findings suggest that optimised N fertilization can simultaneously improve grain protein and antioxidant properties while reducing antinutritional compounds. This targeted agronomic approach offers a promising strategy for producing healthier, nutrient-rich wheat under diverse genotype-environment conditions. Graphical Abstract Graphical Abstract

Key messageUsing phenotypic data of four biparental spring wheat populations evaluated at multiple environments under two management systems, we discovered 152 QTL and 22 QTL hotspots, of which two QTL accounted for up to 37% and 58% of the phenotypic variance, consistently detected in all environments, and fell within genomic regions harboring known genes.Identification of the physical positions of quantitative trait loci (QTL) would be highly useful for developing functional markers and comparing QTL results across multiple independent studies. The objectives of the present study were to map and characterize QTL associated with nine agronomic and end-use quality traits (tillering ability, plant height, lodging, grain yield, grain protein content, thousand kernel weight, test weight, sedimentation volume, and falling number) in hard red spring wheat recombinant inbred lines (RILs) using the International Wheat Genome Sequencing Consortium (IWGSC) RefSeq v2.0 physical map. We evaluated a total of 698 RILs from four populations derived from crosses involving seven parents at 3–8 conventionally (high N) and organically (low N) managed field environments. Using the phenotypic data combined across all environments per management, and the physical map between 1058 and 6526 markers per population, we identified 152 QTL associated with the nine traits, of which 29 had moderate and 2 with major effects. Forty-nine of the 152 QTL mapped across 22 QTL hotspot regions with each region coincident to 2–6 traits. Some of the QTL hotspots were physically located close to known genes. QSv.dms-1A and QPht.dms-4B.1 individually explained up to 37% and 58% of the variation in sedimentation volume and plant height, respectively, and had very large LOD scores that varied from 19.0 to 35.7 and from 16.7 to 55.9, respectively. We consistently detected both QTL in the combined and all individual environments, laying solid ground for further characterization and possibly for cloning.

Hulled wheat species are often used as whole grains in processing, and have been attracting attention in the last 20 years in the food industry. Whole wheat flour of hulled wheat can be used in the food industry for value addition. This study was conducted to evaluate the kernel quality and chemical composition of the whole grain flour of hulled wheats as a preliminary approach to use these species for value addition. The experimental design was separate, randomized complete block designs for einkorn, emmer, and spelt, with four field replicates. According to the results, significant differences (p < 0.05) were observed in kernel quality traits, such as test weight, 1000 kernel weight, and kernel hardness, compared to hard red spring wheat. The results of the chemical composition revealed that hulled wheats were characterized by significantly lower (p < 0.05) protein and higher (p < 0.05) crude fat contents compared to whole wheat flour of hard red spring wheat. Among hulled wheats, total dietary fiber content was highest in emmer, followed by einkorn and spelt. In conclusion, the whole wheat flour of einkorn, emmer, and spelt used in this study differ from hard red spring wheat in their kernel quality and chemical composition.

The incorporation of green manure into cropping systems is recognized as an effective practice for improving environmental sustainability, particularly in irrigated agroecosystems such as the Hetao Irrigation District. However, the effect of green manure as a preceding crop in regulating subsequent wheat productivity and soil functioning in saline soils under limited nitrogen (N) inputs remains insufficiently understood. To address this gap, a 9-year field experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of green manure types (non-leguminous feed rape (GMR), leguminous hairy vetch (GMV), and their combined application (GMRV) and N application rates (N150, 150 kg N per ha; N0, no N input) on multi-year spring wheat yield, soil ecosystem multifunctionality (EMF), and microbial resource limitation. The results showed that only green manure types had significant influence on subsequent yield and stability except for year. Compared with GMR, the GMRV treatment increased average yield by 17.2% under N150 and enhanced yield stability by 21.7% and 22.2% under N150 and N0, respectively. In addition, GMRV markedly enhanced soil organic carbon (SOC), enzyme activities, and EMF across both the wheat-growing and green manure seasons. Positive relationships were observed among SOC, total nitrogen (TN), EMF, and crop yield. Microbial communities were primarily constrained by C and N availability. GMRV reduced the microbial C limitation during the green manure season, while GMV alleviated the microbial C limitation at spring wheat season. In conclusion, the combined application of leguminous and non-leguminous green manure improved crop productivity and soil functioning by promoting SOC accumulation, nutrient availability, and ecosystem multifunctionality, while alleviating microbial resource constraints. This approach offers a promising pathway for reducing nitrogen fertilizer dependence in saline agroecosystems such as the Hetao Irrigation District.