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West Africa, the largest cocoa‐producing region globally, has experienced significant deforestation in recent decades, leading countries to implement large‐scale agroforestry policies; however, most studies on farmers' adoption of agroforestry fail to consider the social (Who?), historical (When?), geographical (Where?), and ecological (What?) factors that influence their motivations to value trees. Drawing from a sample of 150 farmers responsible for the management of 12,096 trees, we quantified the motivations of farmers for 10 material and immaterial uses of trees and used a Bayesian modelling framework to explore the relative importance of the 4 W framework in explaining general motivations, specific to each use, as well as the varying levels of specialization in tree management strategies among farmers. The distribution of use values by category shows that the highest values are associated with (i) agronomic uses (such as shade for cocoa trees and soil fertilization), (ii) food for human consumption, (iii) social purposes, and (iv) medicinal uses. All four aspects of the 4 W framework significantly contribute to understanding farmers' deep motivations, while the influence of each 4 W determinant varies based on the specific material and immaterial uses being considered. The level of specialization or diversification in cocoa farmers' motivations is significantly influenced by their knowledge of tree species and cocoa tree density, with knowledgeable farmers exhibiting greater diversification, while higher cocoa tree density and the presence of remnant trees lead to more specialized strategies that hinder agroforestry adoption. From a political perspective, it is urgent that stakeholders involved in the promotion of agroforestry consider all dimensions of the farmer‐field system. The diversity of farmers' life histories (Who), of cultivated landscapes (Where), of field systems (What), and of time trajectories (When) present both constraints and opportunities with which farmers must contend to transition to much‐desired agroforestry systems. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog. Résumé L'Afrique de l'Ouest, principale région productrice de cacao au monde, a connu une déforestation massive au cours des dernières décennies, poussant les pays à mettre en œuvre des politiques agroforestières à grande échelle. Cependant, la plupart des études sur l'adoption de l'agroforesterie par les agriculteurs ne prennent pas en compte les facteurs sociaux (Who?), historiques (When?), géographiques (Where?) et écologiques (What?) qui influencent leurs motivations à valorizer les arbres. En nous basant sur un échantillon de 150 agriculteurs responsables de la gestion de 12,096 arbres, nous avons quantifié les motivations des agriculteurs pour 10 usages matériels et immatériels des arbres. Nous avons ensuite utilisé un cadre bayésien de modélisation pour explorer l'importance relative du cadre des « 4 W » dans l'explication des motivations générales, spécifiques à chaque usage, ainsi que les niveaux de spécialisation des stratégies de gestion des arbres chez les agriculteurs. La répartition des valeurs d'usage par catégorie montre que les valeurs les plus élevées sont associées à (i) des usages agronomiques (tels que l'ombrage des cacaoyers et la fertilization des sols), (ii) l'alimentation humaine, (iii) des fonctions sociales et (iv) des usages médicinaux. Les quatre aspects du cadre des « 4 W » contribuent de manière significative à la compréhension des motivations profondes des agriculteurs, bien que l'influence de chaque déterminant varie selon les usages matériels ou immatériels spécifiques. Le niveau de spécialisation ou de diversification des motivations des producteurs de cacao est. significativement influencé par leur connaissance des espèces et par la densité des cacaoyers. Les agriculteurs ayant une plus grande connaissance des arbres tendent à diversifier leurs motivations, tandis qu'une plus grande densité de cacaoyers et la présence d'arbres rémanents favorisent des stratégies plus spécialisées, freinant ainsi l'adoption de l'agroforesterie. D'un point de vue politique, il est. urgent que les acteurs impliqués dans la promotion de l'agroforesterie prennent en compte toutes les dimensions du système champ‐agriculteur. La diversité des histoires de vie des agriculteurs (Who), des paysages cultivés (Where), de leurs systèmes de culture (What) et des trajectoires historiques (When) représentent à la fois des contraintes et des opportunités auxquelles les agriculteurs doivent faire face pour initier une transition vers les systèmes agroforestiers tant désirés. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.

Although the importance of urban lake ecosystem services is widely recognised, the integration of associated values and benefits into decision-making is still under-developed. Therefore, this study has assessed the use and non-use values of two urban lakes viz., Ukkadam Big Lake (UBL) and Sulur Lake (SL) in Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu. Primary data were collected from 208 respondents, comprising fishermen, local residents, and visitors, during 2021–22. The estimated total economic value (TEV) was Rs. 107.96 lakhs and Rs. 77.15 lakhs, for UBL and SL, respectively, of which, three-fourth of the value was accounted by use values and the remaining one-fourth by non-use value services. Among use values, the provisional services were estimated at current market prices ranging from 8 to 11 per cent of TEV. The value of recreational services was assessed by the travel cost method and the estimated value was Rs. 75.85 lakhs and Rs. 49.92 lakhs for UBL and SL. The non-use values were assessed using the contingent valuation method, and the mean willingness to pay was found to be Rs. 979.63 and Rs. 801.23, respectively, for UBL and SL per annum. Logit regression estimates indicated that age, education, and income significantly influenced the willingness to pay for the lake’s services. It is concluded that all stakeholders, including the government, should consider the conservation of the lakes by making the necessary efforts to charge entrance fees, desilt the lake, install more sewage plants, and allocate a sufficient budget under the smart city plan.

Background The populations in Ethiopia have developed their indigenous knowledge to use, manage and conserve wild edible plants (WEPs). In the eastern part of Ethiopia, wild edible plants are used as a means of survival during times of food shortage and as dietary supplements. Documenting the traditional and cultural use of wild food plants is a vital step in obtaining baseline data for investigating nutritional values and possible side effects, preserving indigenous knowledge, and ultimately interesting in wild edible plant conservation. However, their significance, management and utilization have not been documented in Mieso District. Therefore, this study aimed to provide documentation of wild edible plant use associated with ethnobotanical knowledge in Mieso District, eastern Ethiopia. Methods An ethnobotanical study of wild edible plant species was conducted from March 2021 to May 2022. A total of 120 (72 males and 48 females) informants were selected using the snowball method. Data collection methods, including semistructured interviews, direct observation and field walks were used. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics, including independent sample t test and analysis of variance (ANOVA). We calculated use values (UVs) to analyse the relative cultural importance of each plant species. Results A total of 41 wild edible plant species belonging to 33 genera in 21 families were documented to be used as food sources both during times of food shortage and as dietary supplements. Family Malvaceae was best-represented with 6 species, followed by Fabaceae and Rhamnaceae (4 species each). The dominant growth form (habit) was shrubs (30 species), followed by trees (11 species). The most widely used plant parts were fruits (covering 39 species, 95%). The largest number (23 species) was collected from forest habitats only, followed by both village and forest habitats (8 species). The majority of wild edible plants (28 species or 68%) were consumed only during famine or in the time of food shortage followed by supplementing staple foods (9 species or 22%). Wild edible plants in Mieso are used for multiple other uses, including for fodder, fuel, medicine, construction, cosmetics and bee keeping. Twenty-three species were mentioned for fodder use, followed by fuel purpose (21 species) and medicinal value (13 species). The species that had the highest use values were Flacourtia indica (Burm.f.) Merr. (1.4), Carissa spinarum L. (1.1), Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Desf. (0.6), Grewia villosa Willd. (0.5), Cordia monoica Roxb. (0.3) and Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill. (L.) (0.2). Most WEPs were collected from March to May ( Badheysa ) (33 species). The highest mentioned wild edible plant sold in the market was F. indica (Burm.f.) Merr. mentioned by 20 informants, followed by Z. spina-christi (L.) Desf. (14). Conclusion The people in Mieso use wild plants as supplementary food to cultivated crops, during famine, and many could be utilized for day-to-day human consumption. Some plants in the district provide cash income for local people. However, deforestation (54%), drought (22%) and agricultural expansion (12%) were the highest threats to wild plants in Mieso District. Hence, on-site and off-site conservation would help protect wild plant resources in Mieso, eastern Ethiopia.

This study explored how farmers’ motivation in terms of use values and/or non-use values to work with farm animal welfare are associated with the economic outcome for the farm. Use values in farm animal welfare refer to economic value derived from productivity and profitability considerations. Non-use values in farm animal welfare refer to economic value derived from good animal welfare, irrespective of the use the farmer derives from the animal, currently or in the future. The analysis was based on detailed information about the income statements of a sample of Swedish dairy farmers, obtained from the Swedish Farm Economic Survey, complemented with survey information about their perceived use and non-use values in farm animal welfare. The findings suggest that farm economic outcome is significantly associated with motivation in terms of use values, but not so much with motivation in terms of non-use values. This is interesting from a policy point of view, because it indicates that farmers with different approaches to farm animal welfare may experience different economic outcomes for their farms. Findings can, for instance, be used to strengthen farmers’ engagement in various private quality assurance standards, which generally focus on values of non-use type, by pointing to that realisation of such values will not impair the economic outcome of the farms. Moreover, findings also suggest that farmers’ economic incentives for engagement in such standards may need to be further strengthened in order to become more attractive, as findings point to that a focus on non-use values generally is not associated with more favourable economic outcomes.

Background Due to historical perceptions of Liangshan Yi Autonomous Prefecture (Sichuan Province, China) as being a violent place, and due to its rugged terrain, cultural differences, and relative inaccessibility, few researchers have conducted in-depth ethnobotanical investigations in Liangshan. But wild edible plants (WEPs) are widely consumed by the Yi people of Liangshan, and their associated ethnobotanical knowledge remains relatively unknown, especially outside of China. This study aimed to (1) investigate the WEPs used by the Liangshan Yi, (2) document the traditional knowledge held about these plants, (3) analyze their special preparation methods and consumption habits, and (4) identify species with important cultural significance to the Liangshan Yi. Methods During 2016–2017, 396 Yi individuals were interviewed in 1 county-level city and 6 counties across Liangshan. Prior informed consent was obtained, and multiple ethnographic methods were utilized, including direct observation, semi-structured interviews, key informant interviews, informal discussions, and field visits. Market surveys were conducted in April, July, and August 2017 by interviewing 38 Yi merchants selling WEPs in 6 Liangshan traditional markets. We collected information about the parts consumed, preparation methods, consumption habits, growth pattern of species, collection months, market prices, and other uses of WEPs. Use values (UVs) were calculated to analyze the relative cultural importance of each WEP. Results In total, 105 plant species belonging to 97 genera and 62 families were recorded. Rosaceae was the family with the largest number of species (14), and herbs (58 species) were the dominant growth form reported. Fruits (34 species), roots (21 species), and tender shoots (20 species) were the primary plant parts used for snacking and cooking. There were 6 main preparation and consumption methods of WEPs reported, ranging from primary food, famine food, snack, spice, culinary coagulant, and medicine, among a few other uses. The Liangshan Yi mainly collect WEPs from March to October, seldom collecting from November to February. There were 35 species of WEPs sold in the markets we visited in Liangshan. The price of medicinal plants was much higher than the price of food and fruits. In total, we documented 49 species of edible medicinal plants in Liangshan, accounting for 44.7% of all WEPs. They can be used for treating 27 medical conditions, including cough, diarrhea, injury, and headaches. The plants with the highest UVs were Berberis jamesiana (1.92), Pyracantha fortuneana (1.87), and Artemisia capillaris (1.44) indicating that these species are the most commonly used and important to the Liangshan Yi’s traditional life and culture. Conclusions The traditional knowledge of WEPs from the accumulated experience of the Yi people’s long period residing in Liangshan reflects the cultural richness of the Yi and the plant diversity of the region. Future research on the nutrition, chemical composition, and bioactivity of the WEPs are needed. Some species with high medicinal value but with sharp wild population decline should be surveyed for resource assessment, conservation, and domestication potential.

Many countries committed to climate action by adopting the Paris Agreement and Sustainable Development Goals in 2015. This study synthesizes 40 years of scientific evidence of what may be an important benefit of these commitments: the non-use value of biodiversity conservation. The synthesis investigates whether biodiversity values can be integrated into climate change damage estimates based on non-use valuation studies of different threats to biodiversity. In the absence of estimates of public willingness to pay (WTP) to avoid the adverse impacts of anthropogenic climate change on biodiversity, we synthesize non-use values for biodiversity conservation from stated preference studies that account for a heterogeneous set of biodiversity threats. We test whether biodiversity non-use values are affected by the threats that policies aim to address, be it human activities or other threats. We estimate meta-regression models in which we explain the variation in these non-use values by accounting for the observed heterogeneity in good, methodology, sample, and context characteristics. We estimate meta-regression models using 159 observations from 62 publications. The models suggest that non-use values for biodiversity conservation addressing human impacts may be larger than those addressing other threats. We also find that non-use values are generally not sensitive to which biodiversity indicators, habitat types, or taxonomic groups are valued. We predict that the mean annual WTP for avoiding human-caused biodiversity losses ranges from 0.2 to 0.4% of GDP per capita. Our findings suggest that state-of-the-art climate change damage functions in integrated assessment models may underestimate actual damage costs because they do not incorporate the premium that the public is willing to pay to avoid human-caused biodiversity losses.

Decisions made by livestock producers inevitably determine the extent of actual farm animal welfare (FAW) provision in livestock production. This article identify key issues in the identification and empirical measurement of farmer's preferences for FAW-related, non-use values to encourage theoretically-sound future research to address relevant potential producer trade-off such as those between use and non-use values with consequences for the total amount of FAW provisions to be delivered to society. Producer preferences for specific non-use values, as well as their overall strength of preferences for non-use values relative to use values will determine their provision of FAW. Investment and/or adjustment costs, however, may prevent producers from changing their production system to their preferred choice and economic welfare measures will be biased whenever such costs are neglected.

Since time immemorial, Tanzanians, particularly the Luguru tribe, have utilised medicinal herbs (MHs) to manage various ailments. However, few ethnobotanical studies have been conducted to document and quantitatively analyze them. This study documents and quantitatively analyzes MHs used by the Luguru people of Morogoro Rural District to address various ailments. The research was conducted between September 2022 and October 2023. Ethnobotanical data on MH were collected from 100 informants identified through the snowball method, employing semistructured interviews, focus group discussions, and field walks. A one‐way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and an independent samples t ‐test were employed to examine statistically significant differences among social demographic variables. Quantitative indices, including family use value (FUV), MH use value (UV), fidelity level (FL), plant part value (PPV), and informant agreement ratio (IAR), were computed. A total of 30 MHs belonging to 13 families were reported to be used for managing various ailments. Asteraceae was the most represented family (seven species, FUV = 2.23). Vernonia amygdalina Del. (Asteraceae) had the highest UV index (0.571), while the root was the most utilised plant part (0.692). Malaria and fever (0.96) and metabolic disorders (0.94) had the highest IAR. The preferred modes of preparation and administration were decoction and oral, respectively. Female, illiterate, and elderly informants possessed significantly higher medicinal knowledge. The study demonstrates that the Luguru people possess a rich understanding of MHs and continue to rely on them to treat various ailments. The MHs with high UV, IAR, and FL can be a foundation for future phytochemical and pharmacological studies.

Background The aim of the study was to document the prevailing indigenous knowledge and various uses of lichens among the lichenophilic communities in the hills and mountainous settlements of Nepal. Methods Ethnic uses were recorded during twelve field trips, each of roughly 15 days in three consecutive years, through direct questionnaires administered to 190 respondents. Lichen samples were identified applying microscopic observation and thin layer chromatography (TLC). Voucher specimens of identified species are deposited at TUCH (Tribhuvan University Central Herbarium) in Nepal. Results Lichens are being used in several ways by different communities of Nepal. We recorded the ethnic use of seven species of lichens belonging to four families (Parmeliaceae, Physciaceae, Ramalinaceae and Usneaceae) and six genera ( Heterodermia, Everniastrum, Parmotrema, Ramalina, Thamnolia and Usnea ) among the Limbu, Sherpa, Lama, Gurung, Rai, Dalit, Tamang, Chhetri and Brahman communities. The present study revealed six use values namely; Medicinal value (MV), food value (FV), ritual and spiritual value (RSV), aesthetic and decorative value (ADV), bedding value (BV) and ethno-veterinary value (EVV) from different parts of Nepal. Three lichen species, Everniastrum cirrhatum, E. nepalense and Parmotrema cetratum were consumed by the Limbu and Rai communities. The Limbu and Sherpa ethnic groups are regarded as most lichenophilic communities while respondents from Brahman, Chhetri and Tamang communities showed less interest in lichen uses. Conclusions The present study contributes to document traditional knowledge on various uses of lichens among nine communities with three different cultural background, inhabitants of eight different altitudinal levels of Nepal. Regarding the six values as identified from this research, significant difference ( p  = <0.05) were found along altitudinal gradients or locations of the settlements, cultural groups and ethnicity of the respondents.

Documenting and quantitatively assessing medicinal plants and indigenous knowledge in different social contexts is critical in providing nature‐based solutions to contemporary issues. Therefore, our study quantitatively evaluated medicinal shrubs and herbs in forest‐fringe communities of Ghana and tested the versatility, ecological apparency and sociodemographic traits and knowledge dynamics hypotheses. Structured questionnaires, interviews and field visits were used to conduct an ethnobotanical survey involving 78 respondents, selected based on random and snowball sampling techniques. The data were analysed using quantitative indices such as indigenous knowledge index (IKI), species use value (SUV), informant agreement ratio (IAR) and ethnobotanical importance value (EIV). To test the versatility and sociodemographic traits and knowledge dynamics hypotheses, linear mixed‐effects regressions were conducted, while one‐way ANOVA was used to test the ecological apparency hypothesis. The Jaccard dissimilarity index was used to assess the degree of uniqueness of diseases treated by plants. We found 69 medicinal shrubs and herbs, belonging to 35 plant families, used to treat 101 diseases in the study area. Paullinia pinnata L. recorded the highest SUV (18.2) values, whereas Momordica charantia L. recorded the highest EIV (22.326) values. We found support for the versatility and sociodemographic traits and knowledge dynamics hypotheses, but no support for the ecological apparency hypothesis. The IAR of the 16 disease categories evaluated in this study ranged from 0.50 to 0.77. The Jaccard index showed that diseases treated by using introduced or native plants were 65.6% dissimilar. Our findings have implications for the achievement of SDG 3 (good health and well‐being). We concluded that sociodemographic traits influence ethnobotanical knowledge dynamics, while plants with multiple useful parts are the most versatile and recommend the conservation of biodiversity to enhance diversity of treatment options.