Journal Article

Maternal Folate Excess, Placental Hormones, and Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: Findings from Prospective Cohorts Before and After Mandatory Folic Acid Food Fortification

Mittinty, Murthy, McCullough, Dylan, Jankovic-Karasoulos, Tanja, Smith, Melanie D., Leemaqz, Shalem, Williamson, Jessica, Dekker, Gustaaf A., Roberts, Claire T., Arthurs, Anya L.

2025

Overview

Background/Objectives: Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) prevalence in Australia has increased from 5.6% (2010) to 19.3% (2022), coinciding with the introduction of mandatory folic acid (FA) food fortification and increased supplementation. Animal studies show that high FA intake in pregnancy impairs maternal glucose regulation, but the underlying mechanisms are unknown. We investigated whether fortification has altered maternal folate status to increase GDM risk, and whether key hormones that regulate maternal glucose homeostasis are affected following FA fortification. Methods: Serum folate, red cell folate (RCF), prolactin (PRL), human placental lactogen (hPL) and placental growth hormone (GH2) were measured in early pregnancy samples from women enrolled in prospective cohorts: SCOPE (N = 1164; pre-fortification) and STOP (N = 1300; post-fortification). Associations with GDM were assessed. Results: Compared to pre-fortification, women post-fortification had a higher GDM incidence (5.0% vs. 15.2%), serum folate (↑ 18%), RCF (↑ 259%), hPL (↑ 29%), and GH2 (↑ 13%) concentrations. RCF concentrations above the clinical reference range were found in 57.6% of women post-fortification. Causal mediation analysis suggests that higher RCF contributed to increased GDM risk. Women with RCF excess had 48% more GDM cases, and higher PRL (↑ 24.2%) and hPL (↑ 12.7%) levels compared to those within the reference range. Conclusions: Maternal folate excess is likely contributing to the rising prevalence of GDM in Australia. These findings highlight the need to evaluate excess FA/folate safety in pregnancy, particularly in countries with mandatory fortification. Placental hormones may represent a mechanistic link between excess folate and GDM, warranting further investigation.

• Publisher: MDPI AG
• Subject: Adult / Analysis / Australia - epidemiology / Dextrose / Diabetes in pregnancy / Diabetes, Gestational - blood / Diabetes, Gestational - epidemiology / Diabetes, Gestational - etiology / Ethnicity / Female / Folic acid / Folic Acid - administration & dosage / Folic Acid - adverse effects / Folic Acid - blood / Food fortification / Food, Fortified - adverse effects / Gestational age / Gestational diabetes / Glucose / Homeostasis / Hormones / Hospitals / Humans / Hypertension / Insulin resistance / Mediation / Placenta / Placental hormones / Placental Hormones - blood / Placental Lactogen - blood / Pregnancy / Prolactin / Prolactin - blood / Prospective Studies / Research ethics / Somatotropin / Systematic review / Type 2 diabetes / Vitamin B / Womens health