Journal Article

Probing mental representations of space through sketch mapping: a scoping review

Raubal, M., Hölscher, C., Simonet, M., Vater, C., Schwering, A., Krukar, J., Zhong, S., Abati, C., Mavros, P.

2025

Overview

Cognitive maps are mental representations of space essential for guiding spatial behavior. To assess the properties of these cognitive maps, sketch mapping has been widely used as a research tool in spatial cognition research. This scoping review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the methodologies and the cognitive processes concerning the externalization of cognitive maps through sketch mapping. Following the PRISMA-ScR checklist (Tricco et al. in Ann Intern Med 169(7):467–473, 2018, https://doi.org/10.7326/M18-0850 ), a comprehensive search from five electronic databases was performed with predefined combinations of keywords. Twenty-four articles were selected and analyzed, covering a wide range of methods: traditional pen-and-paper sketching ( n  = 18 studies); combination of pen-and-paper and digital sketching ( n  = 1); exclusively digital sketching ( n  = 4); and digital VR sketching ( n  = 1). With regard to the formation of cognitive maps in environmental scale spaces, studies employed either direct experience or virtual experience of unfamiliar environments, videos, maps, or retrieval from own memory. This review highlights the inherent conflict between sketch maps’ advantages in capturing knowledge in less structured experimental protocols and researchers’ need for structured quantification of their quality, as well as the underused diversity of media through which sketch maps can be produced for appropriate scenarios. We encourage researchers to (a) increase the precision in reporting the cognitive processes being investigated with sketch maps (e.g., short-term vs. long-term memory), (b) rely on established data analysis methods instead of developing custom measures for each study, and (c) consider alternative media beyond pen and paper when more suitable to the experimental context. Significance statement Mental representations of space, known as cognitive maps, are essential for finding our way and engaging with the world around us. This research examines how cognitive maps are externalized through sketch mapping, a widely used tool in spatial cognition research. Sketch maps—informal drawings based on an individual's memory of an environment—have long been used to explore human spatial understanding and decision-making. The study addresses a real-world problem: understanding how people mentally organize complex spaces like buildings and cities, which is essential for fields like urban planning, architecture, or wayfinding systems in transportation hubs among others. By synthesizing findings from 24 studies, this review identifies key cognitive processes—such as spatial memory, problem-solving, and spatial reasoning—that are probed with the use of sketch maps across literature. Furthermore, it highlights the emerging divergence of methods used to collect sketch maps, ranging from traditional pen-and-paper techniques to digital tools and virtual reality opening new possibilities. Despite this increasing variety, underrepresentation of some issues persists, e.g., representing environments with vertical components, such as multi-floor buildings. The review emphasizes the need for clearly defining the specific cognitive processes targeted in sketch map studies, such as distinguishing between short-term and long-term memory. Additionally, we recommend using established analysis methods and considering alternative media beyond pen and paper when better aligned with the experimental design.

• Publisher: Springer International Publishing,Springer Nature B.V,Springer,SpringerOpen
• Subject: Behavioral Science and Psychology / Buildings / Classification / Cognition & reasoning / Cognitive Mapping / Cognitive models / Cognitive Processes / Cognitive Psychology / Computer applications / Conference Papers / Decision making / Eligibility / Environment / Evidence / Experimental Psychology / Humans / Individual Differences / Information Seeking / Information Sources / Language Skills / Long term memory / Mapping / Memory / Mental representation of space / Meta Analysis / Navigation / Navigation behavior / Neighborhoods / Neurosciences / Problem solving / Psychology / Psychomotor Skills / Recall (Psychology) / Reference Materials / Review / Review Article / Scoping review / Search Strategies / Short Term Memory / Sketch map / Space Perception - physiology / Spatial Ability / Spatial cognition / Spatial memory / Urban planning / World Problems