Journal Article

Omitting patients with no follow-up leads to bias when using inverse-intensity weighted GEEs to handle irregular and informative assessment times

Pullenayegum, Eleanor, Zhang, Xiawen, Heath, Anna, Xu, Wei

2025

Overview

Background Longitudinal data can be used to study disease progression and are often collected at irregular intervals. When the assessment times are informative about the severity of the disease, regression analyses of the outcome trajectory over time based on Generalized Estimating Equations (GEEs) result in biased estimates of regression coefficients. Inverse-intensity weighted GEEs (IIW-GEEs) are a popular approach to account for informative assessment times and yield unbiased estimates of outcome model coefficients when the assessment times and outcomes are conditionally independent given previously observed data. However, a consequence of irregular assessment times is that some patients may have no follow-up assessments at all, and it is common practice to omit these patients from analyses when studying the outcome trajectory over time. Methods We show mathematically that IIW-GEEs yield biased estimates of regression coefficients when patients with no follow-up assessments are excluded from analyses. We design a simulation study to evaluate how the bias varies with sample size, assessment frequency, follow-up time, and the informativeness of the assessment time process. Using the STAR*D trial of treatments for major depressive disorder, we examine the extent of bias in practice. Results Our simulation results showed the bias incurred by omitting patients with no follow-up visits increased as visit frequency decreased and as the duration of follow-up decreased. In the STAR*D trial, omitting patients with no follow-up visits led to over-estimation of the rate of improvement in depressive symptoms. Conclusions Studies should be designed to ensure patients with no follow-up are included in the data. This can be achieved by a) creating inception cohorts; b) when taking sub-samples of existing cohorts, ensuring that patients without follow-up assessments are included; c) dropping exclusion criteria based on availability of follow-up visits.

• Publisher: BioMed Central,BioMed Central Ltd,Springer Nature B.V,BMC
• Subject: Aftercare / Analysis / Bias / Computer Simulation / Datasets / Disease Progression / Estimates / Fasting / Generalized estimating equations / Glucose / Health Sciences / Humans / Information management / Informative observation / Inverse weighting / Longitudinal data / Longitudinal Studies / Major Depressive Disorder / Medical records / Medical research / Medicine / Medicine & Public Health / Medicine, Experimental / Models, Statistical / Patient Admission / Patients / Regression Analysis / Simulation / Statistical Theory and Methods / Statistics for Life Sciences / Theory of Medicine/Bioethics / Time Factors