Journal Article

A Fresh Perspective on Cyanobacterial Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning Toxins: History, Methodology, and Toxicology

Arlinghaus, Kandis M., Boyer, Gregory L., Hapeman, Cathleen J., Smith, Zacharias J.

2025

Overview

Paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins (PSPTs) are a class of neurotoxins most known for causing illness from consuming contaminated shellfish. These toxins are also present in freshwater systems with the concern that they contaminate drinking and recreational waters. This review provides (1) a complete list of the 84+ known PSPTs and important chemical features; (2) a complete list of all environmental freshwater PSPT detections; (3) an outline of the certified PSPT methods and their inherent weaknesses; and (4) a discussion of PSPT toxicology, the weaknesses in existing data, and existing freshwater regulatory limits. We show ample evidence of production of freshwater PSPTs by cyanobacteria worldwide, but data and method uncertainties limit a proper risk assessment. One impediment is the poor understanding of freshwater PSPT profiles and lack of commercially available standards needed to identify and quantify freshwater PSPTs. Further constraints are the limitations of toxicological data derived from human and animal model exposures. Unassessed mouse toxicity data from 1978 allowed us to calculate and propose toxicity equivalency factors (TEF) for 11-hydroxysaxitoxin (11-OH STX; M2) and 11-OH dcSTX (dcM2). TEFs for the 11-OH STX epimers were calculated to be 0.4 and 0.6 for 11α-OH STX (M2α) and 11β-OH STX (M2β), while we estimate that TEFs for 11α-OH dcSTX (dcM2α) and 11β-OH dcSTX (dcM2β) congeners would be 0.16 and 0.23, respectively. Future needs for freshwater PSPTs include increasing the number of reference materials for environmental detection and toxicity evaluation, developing a better understanding of PSPT profiles and important environmental drivers, incorporating safety factors into exposure guidelines, and evaluating the accuracy of the established no-observed-adverse-effect level.

• Publisher: MDPI AG,MDPI
• Subject: algal toxins / Analysis / Animal models / Animals / Bacterial Toxins - chemistry / Bacterial Toxins - toxicity / Congeners / Cyanobacteria / Cyanobacteria - chemistry / Cyanobacteria - metabolism / Cyanobacteria Toxins / cyanotoxins / Food contamination & poisoning / Fresh water / Fresh Water - microbiology / Freshwater / Health risk assessment / Humans / Inland water environment / Liu, Timothy / Marine toxins / Marine Toxins - analysis / Marine Toxins - chemistry / Marine Toxins - toxicity / Mice / Microorganisms / Names / Neurotoxins / Paralytic shellfish poisoning / paralytic shellfish toxins / Poisoning / Public health / Recreational waters / Review / Risk Assessment / Safety factors / saxitoxins / Shellfish / Shellfish Poisoning - etiology / Signal transduction / Toxicity / Toxicology / Toxins