Journal Article

An Asset for Food Safety: The Knowledge Behind the Physiological Alterations Induced by ETEC Enterotoxins

Almeida, Carina, Castro, Joana, Araújo, Daniela, Barros, Maria Margarida, Oliveira, Ricardo, Campos, Ana Maria, Outor-Monteiro, Divanildo

2025

Overview

Foodborne pathogens represent a significant public health risk in both developed and developing countries. Among these pathogens, enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) is a major cause of diarrhea in humans and one of the leading causes of mortality in newly weaned pigs. The main sources of ETEC contamination include environments with poor hygiene and contaminated water, meat, cereals, and vegetables. Therefore, this review manuscript focuses on the pathogenesis of ETEC in humans and pigs. The main virulence factors responsible for ETEC-associated infections, such as colonization factors and toxins, will be described for both species, with particular emphasis on the toxins as well as, their classification and structural characterization. More specifically, this study will outline the main physiological alterations and adaptive mechanisms induced by these enterotoxins, namely heat-stable toxin (ST) and heat-labile toxin (LT), in the three most affected systems: the gastrointestinal system, the enteric nervous system (ENS), and the immune system. This set of findings provides a deeper insight into the pathogenesis of this relevant foodborne pathogen, which is crucial for empowering food scientists and stakeholders to more effectively mitigate associated risks. As such, it provides valuable understanding of toxin activity, serving as a means to raise awareness of food safety practices and strengthening risk communication, surveillance and intervention strategies, thereby ensuring consumer protection. Additionally, this knowledge enables the development of preventive strategies to reduce ETEC infections, thereby decreasing the need for clinical management among consumers exposed to this bacterium. Ultimately, it contributes to the preservation of public health, the reduction of antimicrobial use, and the lowering of antimicrobial resistance gene prevalence.

• Publisher: MDPI AG
• Subject: Amino acids / Antimicrobial resistance / Biosecurity / Cereals / Consumer protection / Developing countries / Diarrhea / E coli / Enteric nervous system / Enterotoxins / Escherichia coli / ETEC enterotoxins / Food / Food contamination / Food contamination & poisoning / Food safety / Foodborne diseases / Foodborne pathogens / Gastroenteritis / Gastrointestinal system / Health aspects / Health risks / Hogs / Hygiene / Immune system / Infection / Infections / LDCs / Nervous system / Pathogenesis / Pathogens / physiological alterations / Physiological aspects / Physiology / Prevention / Public health / Safety and security measures / Small intestine / Structural analysis / Swine / Thermal stability / Toxins / Virulence / Virulence factors / Water pollution